Assessing Children in Need and their Families:
Practice Guidance
Department of Health
Assessing Children
in Need and their
Families:
Practice Guidance
London
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Foreword ix
Introduction xi
1 Knowledge underpinning the Assessment Framework 1
Wendy Rose and Jane Aldgate
1.1 What is meant by knowledge in this chapter 1
1.4 Child development 1
1.8 The importance of attachment 4
1.14 Protective factors and resilience 5
1.19 Children’s perspectives 8
1.20 Parental capacity 9
1.32 Parents’ perspectives 12
1.35 Theories and myths of the individual in society 12
1.38 Wider family, community and environmental factors 13
1.49 Overarching theories and approaches that inform practice 16
1.55 Methods of intervention 17
1.56 Roles and tasks of child and family workers 19
1.62 The challenge of evidence based work 20
Appendix 1 Chart illustrating the developmental progress of infants and
23
young children
Appendix 2 Genogram 29
Appendix 3 Ecomap 30
References 31
2 Assessing black children in need and their families 37
Ratna Dutt OBE and Melanie Phillips
2.1 Introduction 37
2.8 Assessing black children in need and their families 37
v
Contents
2.13 Demography 38
2.17 Socio economic conditions 39
2.19 The changing nature of culture for England’s black population 39
Key issues in current child welfare practice 40
2.23 Numbers of black children in care 40
2.25 Family Support 40
2.26 Inquiry Reports 40
THEORIES AND PRACTICE INFORMING ASSESSMENT 41
Domain: Children’s Developmental Needs 41
2.28 Health 41
2.29 Education 42
2.31 Identity and Emotional and Behavioural Development 43
2.33 The nature of Identity 43
2.35 Group identification 43
2.37 Individual and personal identity 43
2.42 The development of a racial identity 44
2.53 Ethnicity 47
2.57 Cultural, religious and linguistic identity 47
2.59 Culture 48
2.60 The aquisition of cultural identity 48
2.67 Religion 49
2.71 Language 50
2.76 Social Presentation and Selfcare Skills 50
2.80 Family and Social Relationships 51
Domain: Parenting Capacity 54
2.95 Basic Care 54
2.96 Ensuring Safety 54
2.112 Racial abuse and harassment 57
2.119 Emotional Warmth 58
2.129 Stimulation 60
2.133 Guidance, Boundaries and Stability 60
Domain: Family and Environmental Factors 62
Family History and Functioning 62
2.143 Family size 62
2.146 Family structure and arrangements 63
2.149 Parenting strengths and difficulties 64
2.152 Wider Family 65
2.156 Housing 65
2.158 Employment 66
vi
2.160 Income 66
2.165 Families Social Integration 67
2.166 Community Resources 68
References 70
3 Assessing the needs of disabled children and their families 73
Ruth Marchant and Mary Jones
3.1 Introduction 73
3.6 Disabled children and the Assessment Framework 74
3.12 Disabled children and assessment 75
3.13 Using assessments positively with disabled children and young
people 76
Domain: Child’s Developmental Needs 79
3.35 Health 80
3.43 Issues of consent 82
3.45 Basic health care 82
3.48 Education 83
3.54 Emotional and Behavioural Development 84
3.61 Identity 85
3.68 Family and Social Relationships 87
3.74 Social Presentation 88
3.76 Selfcare skills 89
3.79 Domain: Parenting Capacity 89
3.82 Basic Care 90
3.84 Emotional Warmth 91
3.85 Ensuring Safety 91
3.92 Stimulation 93
3.94 Guidance and Boundaries 93
3.99 Stability 94
Domain: Family and Environmental Factors 95
3.104 Family History and Functioning 96
3.107 Wider Family 96
3.111 Housing 97
3.117 Employment 98
3.120 Income 99
3.123 Family Social Integration 100
3.125 Community Resources 100
3.128 Involving children in the assessment process 101
3.139 Conclusion 103
Appendix 4 Definitions of Disability and Key Legislation 104
References 108
vii
4 Resources to assist effective assessment of children in need 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 The collection and recording of information 113
4.5 Resources commissioned to assist the assessment process 114
4.6 Principles underpinning the use of practice materials 114
4.7 Assessment records 115
4.14 Use of questionnaires and scales in assessment 116
4.21 Evidence based publications 119
4.31 Training resources 122
References 127
viii
ix
This publication is a companion volume to the Guidance on the Framework
for the
Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. It is a significant contribution to a
major programme of work led by the Department of Health to provide
guidance,
practice materials and training resources on assessing children in need
and their
families. This is to assist in the achievement of one of the
government’s key policy
objectives in children’s services, delivered through the Quality
Protects Programme,
to ensure that referral and assessment processes discriminate
effectively between
different types and level of need, and produce a timely response.
Whilst government policy objectives may be clear, effective
implementation requires
detailed knowledge and understanding. The practice guidance has been
produced
to help policy makers, managers and practitioners who have
responsibility for
responding to the needs of some of our most disadvantaged and vulnerable
children.
The needs of some children require particular knowledge and sensitivity
to ensure
they do not suffer further disadvantage. These include children from
black and
minority ethnic families and disabled children. The issues involved in
assessing their
needs within the context of their families and communities are discussed
by leading
professionals in their field. The steering and advisory groups, which
were set up to
develop the Guidance on the Assessment Framework, have contributed to
these
perspectives.
It is hoped this publication will be a valuable resource for use in
promoting evidencebased
practice, not only in direct work with children and families but also in
training
and continuing staff development.
John Hutton
MINISTER OF STATE FOR SOCIAL SERVICES
March 2000
Foreword
xi
The body of knowledge available to those who struggle with today’s
problems of
child care is still rudimentary compared with the physical sciences; but
it is by far
and away greater than what could called upon in the past… Indeed, social
work
today is expected to be ‘evidence-based’, something that would have been
an
unrealistic aspiration in, say, the 1950s, when there was virtually no
evidence upon
which to draw (Parker, 1999, pp.54–55).
Understanding what is happening to a child when there are concerns that
the child’s
health and development are being impaired remains a core professional
activity for
those working with children and families. The knowledge which is
available to assist
them has expanded dramatically over the last two decades. However, it
has not always
been easily available to practitioners and their managers. The
development of the
Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (jointly issued by
the Department of Health, the Department for Education and Employment
and the
Home Office, 2000) has drawn heavily, from many disciplines, on the
wealth of
research and accumulated practice experience about the developmental
needs of
children. The aim of the practice guidance in this accompanying
publication is to
make transparent the evidence base for the Assessment Framework, thereby
assisting
professionals in their tasks of analysis, judgement and decision making.
Chapter 1 highlights some of the key theories, research findings and
practice wisdom
which have underpinned the development of the Assessment Framework and
in
which confidence can be placed. Staff who are working with children and
families may
find further exploration of the texts referenced in this chapter helpful
in informing
their practice. Chapter 2 provides more specific knowledge and guidance
about
working with black children and their families and points to useful
sources of
information. Chapter 3 similarly provides knowledge and guidance about
assessing
the needs of disabled children and their families. These two chapters
address issues of
major importance which must be integral to policy, planning, management
and
practice in work with children and families. However, the messages which
can be
drawn from these two chapters can be used in work with all children.
The Department of Health is grateful to the authors of the chapters:
Chapter 1: Wendy Rose, Senior Research Fellow and Jane Aldgate,
Professor of
Social Care, The Open University
Introduction
Chapter 2: Ratna Dutt OBE, Director, REU and Melanie Phillips,
Researcher,
Trainer and Consultant to REU
Chapter 3: Ruth Marchant and Mary Jones, Directors of Triangle
The concluding chapter, Chapter 4, outlines a significant package of
Department of
Health commissioned resources which can be used to support staff in
their practice
and in their professional development. These resources include texts
summarising key
messages from relevant research findings, questionnaires and scales to
assist work with
children and families, training materials and other work under
development.
These are only a selection of what is available. Knowledge is
continually being updated
and important developments will take place over the next few years. It
is, therefore,
incumbent on all professionals involved in training, management and
practice to be
continually alert to new resources, to ensure that work with children
and families is
firmly evidence-based. Through the Department of Health’s Quality
Protects
Programme, an important process of change is underway aimed at improving
the
outcomes for children in need. The development of the Framework for
the Assessment
of Children in Need and their Families and
its associated materials forms a significant
part of this programme.
Jenny Gray
SOCIAL CARE GROUP
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
REFERENCES
Department of Health, Department for Education and
Employment and Home Office (2000)
Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and
their Families. Stationery Office,
London.
Holman B, Parker R and Utting W (1999) Reshaping
Child Care Practice. NISW, London.
xii
What is meant by knowledge in this chapter
1.1 Throughout the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need
and their Families
(Department of Health et al, 2000) to which this practice guidance
relates, it has been
emphasised that the framework is grounded in knowledge. Knowledge is
defined as
theory, research findings and practice experience in which confidence
can be placed to
assist in the gathering of information, its analysis and the choice of
intervention in
formulating the child’s plan.
1.2 This chapter explores how theory, research and practice assist in
understanding each of
the three domains or systems of the framework and their interaction, the
roles and
tasks of the child and family worker, the processes of planning and
decision making
and the importance of evidence based work.
1.3 There are many theories from a range of disciplines which contribute
to the
understanding of human growth and development and the interaction
between
internal and external factors which have an impact on the lives of
individuals.
Schofield (1998, p.57) summarises the importance of the interplay of
these factors
which can be applied to the Assessment Framework:
Social workers need a framework for understanding and helping children
and
families which takes into account the inner world of the self and the outer
world of
the environment, both in terms of relationships and in terms of
practicalities such as
housing. It is the capacity of social workers to be aware of and
integrate in their
practice these different areas of concern which defines the distinctive
nature of their
professional identity.
In Chapter 2 of the Guidance on the Assessment Framework (Department of
Health
et al, 2000), the three domains of child’s developmental needs,
parenting capacity and
family and environmental factors are described (Figure 1). These domains
and their
interrelationship take account of ‘the inner world of the self and the
outer world of the
environment’ (Schofield, 1998).
Child development
1.4 It has long been recognised that children develop along several
dimensions, often
simultaneously, and that they need to reach a series of milestones along
each
dimension if optimal outcomes are to be achieved. It is acknowledged
that there will
be differential development across the dimensions for some children, for
instance,
1
1 Knowledge
underpinning the Assessment
Framework
2
Health
Education
Emotional &
Behavioural
Development
Identity
Family & Social
Relationships
Social
Presentation
Selfcare Skills
Basic Care
Ensuring
Safety
Emotional
Warmth
Stimulation
Guidance
& Boundaries
Stability
CHILD
Safeguarding
and promoting
welfare
Family
History
& Functioning
Wider Family
Housing
Employment
Income
Family’s Social
Integration
Community
Resources
CHILD’S DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS
PARENTING CAPACITY
FAMILY & ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Figure 1 The Assessment Framework
those with impairments. Different aspects of development will have more
or less
weight at different stages of a child’s life. For example, in the early
years, there is an
emphasis on achieving physical milestones. Sheridan’s charts on
development in the
early years, from one month to five years are a valuable source of
reference here
(Appendix 1). In middle childhood, social and academic capacity becomes
more
prominent although the physical development continues (for example
Rushton et al,
1988), while the adolescent strives to reconcile social and emotional
dependence and
independence (Department of Health, 1996). Some examples of
developmental tasks
to be achieved at different stages are summarised by Masten and
Coatsworth (1998) in
Figure 2.
Figure 2 Examples of Developmental Tasks
1.5 What happens to children in the first years of life is the
foundation of later development
and will affect their outcomes. The significance of this must be taken
into account in
the assessment process. This is why secure attachments are so important
in the early
years. Where these attachments are absent or broken, decisions to
provide children with
new attachment figures must be taken as quickly as possible to avoid
developmental
damage. Careful distinction has to be drawn between delay which is
harmful to a child’s
development and taking appropriate time to make good plans.
3
Age Period Task
Infancy to preschool Attachment to caregiver(s)
Language
Differentiation of self from environment
Self control & compliance
Middle childhood School adjustment (attendance,
appropriate conduct)
Academic achievement (eg. learning to read, do
arithmetic)
Getting along with peers (acceptance, making friends)
Rule-governed conduct (following rules of society for
moral behaviour and prosocial conduct)
Adolescence Successful transition to secondary
schooling
Academic achievement (learning skills needed for
higher education & work)
Involvement in extracurricular activities (eg.
athletics,
clubs)
Forming close friendships within & across gender
Forming a cohesive sense of self-identity
Masten and Coatsworth (1998)
1.6 The seven dimensions along which children develop, discussed by Ward
(Horwath
(ed) 2000), are influenced by many factors. Recent empirical research,
for example,
has suggested connections between biological and other areas of
development. The
development of the infant brain mirrors developmental experience in
general. It is
argued by Perry (1993) that the brains of developing infants react to
the quality and
nature of sensory information. For example, children raised with little
or no
experience of verbal language may have difficulties in attaining the
neurodevelopment
required for optimal speech or language. As the result of research
findings, Pugh (1999) makes the point strongly:
Environmental stress has a negative effect not only on how the brain
develops, but
how it functions, and underlies our capacity to make and sustain
relationships.
1.7 Additionally, as Schofield (1998) suggests, it is important to take
account of the
psycho-social influences on children. Clare Winnicot described in the
1960s (quoted
by Schofield) how these influences relate to what takes place in
children’s inner and
outer worlds.
The importance of attachment
1.8 Two major concepts critical to the interrelationship between the
inner and outer
worlds are attachment and self esteem. As Schofield suggests, these are
interactive.
One of the most influential writers on attachment has been John Bowlby
whose work
is still highly relevant (1958; 1969; 1973; 1980). His work has been
taken forward by
others such as Rutter, Ainsworth, Fahlberg, Jones and Howe. However, the
process of
attachment is far from simple, as Crittenden and Ainsworth (1989, p.432)
suggest:
Attachment theory is a relatively new, open-ended theory with eclectic
underpinning. … Although it began with an attempt to understand
disturbed
functioning of individuals who had experienced traumatic losses or early
separations, it is a theory of normal development that offers
explanations for some
types of atypical development (Bowlby, 1969; 1973; 1980).
Pugh (1999) argues that ‘attachment theory makes an important
contribution to our
growing understanding of the importance of social and emotional
competence as the
basis of self-esteem, and a key ingredient in the concept of resilience’
(which is
discussed later in this chapter).
1.9 Children who are securely attached to significant adults in early
childhood have been
shown to be able to develop appropriate peer relationships, and cope
well with
problems that confront them. It is also known that children who have had
good
attachment experiences will be able to use these in their relationships
with their own
children in later life. It is because of the importance of good
attachment experiences
that practice concerned with helping children who have lost attachment
figures places
so much emphasis on providing these children with continuity of good
alternative
parenting experiences. Bentovim (1998) reminds practitioners that there
is strong
association between significant harm and insecure attachments, citing
Carlson et al
(1989) who found that more than 80% of significantly harmed infants had
disorganised attachments compared to less that 20% in a non-maltreated
comparison
group.
4
1.10 The central place of attachment disturbance in cases of child
maltreatment is also
noted by Jones et al (1999) and the relationship with parents’ own
experiences:
Attachment difficulties are linked with parental childhood histories of
abuse and
deprivation, parental personality difficulties, as well as functional
illnesses such as
depression. The identification of parent/child attachment difficulties
has
important implications for intervention, particularly in view of the
outcome
literature in child maltreatment, where persisting parent/child
attachment
difficulties combined with evidence of psychological maltreatment on
follow-up is
a consistent finding (Jones, 1998).
1.11 The wealth of research on attachment reinforces the importance of
paying attention to
attachment in assessments of all children, irrespective of their age.
Teenagers who have
had poor attachment experiences in their early years are particularly
vulnerable,
especially if they have experienced many separations and a childhood of
discontinuity.
Teenagers are also vulnerable if they lose good attachments in their
adolescent years.
Children who are joining new families, therefore, need special
attention, as BAAF
(1999) suggests:
Many children will in time build positive healthy attachments in their
new family,
integrate their past and present experiences, and enter adulthood with a
sense of
stability and belonging. Yet the experience of adult adoptees reminds us
that the
interruption of primary connections has consequences which are
potentially
lifelong, and may result in a deep sense of personal loss and rejection.
1.12 Practitioners will need to integrate multi-faceted knowledge of
child development
into their assessments and, in particular, what is relevant from
psychodynamic theory
and learning theory (Seden, 2000). The development of children’s inner
and outer
worlds can be understood within general principles of psychodynamic
theory which
focuses on the importance of the psychological processes at work in
three key
relationships: ‘between self and significant other people, past and
present experience,
and inner and outer reality’ (Brearley, 1991, pp.49–50). These ideas are
important in
understanding what is happening to a child.
1.13 Children’s cognitive, emotional and social development go hand in
hand. Children’s
behaviour, both adaptive and maladaptive may be learned from their
experiences.
Learning theory suggests behaviour that is learned can also be
unlearned, with the
possibilities of maladaptive behaviours being replaced with positive,
pro-social
behaviours. Key exponents include Skinner (1974) on operant learning,
Bandura
(1977) on observational learning and Seligman (1975) on learned
helplessness, and
Hudson (1991) among many others. Caution has to be exercised here. The
results of
intervention will depend on the level and scope of children’s positive
and negative
developmental experiences and other factors.
Protective factors and resilience
1.14 Not only are children’s experiences germane to their development
but other factors
within individual children, such as temperament, personality and gender
all influence
the way they are likely to react to experiences of their families and
the environment in
which they are growing up. A number of writers have summarised the
factors which
5
may protect children and those which may make them more vulnerable
(Rutter in
Haggerty et al, 1996; Jones in Adcock and White (eds), 1998; Masten and
Coatsworth, 1998). An example (Table 1) is included in this chapter from
Crossing
Bridges (Falkov (ed),1998, p.72).
1.15 Children vary widely in the way they may respond to a set of
circumstances. Some
children may do well even in the most adverse circumstances while others
appear to
have little capacity to cope with small amounts of stress. It is
therefore important to
understand what may act as protective factors in children’s lives and
what may be
stressors or vulnerabilities. Increasingly, interest is being shown in
the concept of
resilience in children (discussed by Gilligan, 2000). Rutter (1999,
pp.119–120)
describes resilience as:
The phenomenon of overcoming stress or adversity. That is, put in more
operational terms, there has been a relatively good outcome for someone
despite
their experience of situations that have been shown to carry a major
risk for the
development of psychopathology.
1.16 As with attachment, resilience is a broadly based concept of some
complexity. This
means there must be a careful analysis which focuses not just on the
individual or the
family but on ‘the relevant stresses and adversities in their social
context’ (Rutter 1999,
p.159). The importance of taking a broadly based approach to the
assessment of
children is highlighted by current ideas on protective factors. The
evidence suggests
strongly that children vary considerably in their responses to positive
and negative
experiences. Multiple protective and adverse factors may be involved at
the same time.
Rutter (1999, p.119) therefore suggests in summary that:
Children vary in their vulnerability to psycho-social stress and
adversity as a result
of both genetic and environmental influences; that family-wide
experiences tend to
impinge on individual children in quite different ways; that the
reduction of
negative, and increase of positive, chain reactions influences the
extent to which the
effects of adversity persist over time; that new experiences which open
up opportunities,
can provide beneficial ‘turning-point’ effects; that although positive
experiences in themselves do not exert much of a protective effect, they
can be
helpful if they serve to neutralise some risk factors; and that the
cognitive and
affective processing of experiences is likely to influence whether or
not resilience
develops.
1.17 These findings have led writers such as Buchanan (1999) to talk
about the importance
of mobilising clusters of protective factors for children even in the
most unpromising
situations. This constitutes an important consideration in assessment
and intervention.
One of the key protective factors identified by researchers is
successful school
experience. Furthermore, having a parent who promotes the importance of
education
is another vital factor (Utting, 1996):
One of the most significant protective factors found in the backgrounds
of children
from disadvantaged homes whose attainment is above average is having a
parent
who displays a keen interest in their education.
Writers such as Jackson (1987), Cleaver (1991), Katz et al (1997),
Buchanan and
Hudson (1998) and Sinclair (1998) provide ample evidence of why ‘any
consideration
of how to meet the needs of a child must include their education’
(Sinclair, 1998, p.5).
6
7
1. Reproduced with kind permission of the authors.
From: Falkov A (ed) ( 1998) Crossing Bridges. Training resources for
working with mentally ill parents and their children. Reader – for managers, practitioners and trainers.
p.72. Pavilion
Publishing, Brighton.
Table 11 Risks/stressors and
protectors/resources relevant to children
Risk/stressor Factor Protector
Intrinsic
Younger Age Older
Male Gender Female
General or specific learning disabilities, Development
Good cognitive and
developmental disorder, lack of educational (language
and cognitive language abilities
skills abilities) and education skills
Chronic physical illness/disability Physical health
Healthy
Predisposition to mental disorder, or increased risk
Genetics No adverse predisposition
Difficult Temperament Easy
Belonging to minority – being ‘different’ Ethnicity
Belonging to majority
experience of oppression, discrimination, racism group
Immediate circumstances
Discordant/distant Parent-child relationship
Warm/mutual
Lax/hostile/no control Parenting Positive, eg.
co-operation
Neglect, abuse and good control,
age-appropriate
interactions
Distant/discordant/violent Inter-parental relationship
Mutually
supportive/co-operative
Comorbidity, both parents ill, single parent ill
Parental mental health Partner well
Absent/discordant/oppressive Sibling and peer
relationships Warm/supportive
Material hardship Socio-economic resources Financially
secure
Crowded, unhygenic Housing Good, spacious
Poor ethos, low support, bullying, punitive School
Good ethos, supportive
Absent supports, anti-social influences Community
Support, provision of child
activities
Life events
Loss and other negative life events and Life events
and experiences Positive life events,
experiences acknowledgement of
achievements
1.18 The ability to differentiate the vulnerabilities and strengths of
children at different
ages and stages of development is critical in assessment. The neglect of
some of these
issues for adolescents is increasingly being remedied. Cleaver (2000a)
provides
summaries of research findings of the relevant factors for different age
groups,
including children over 10 (Table 2).
8
Vulnerabilities Strengths
Coping with puberty without support. Factual
information about puberty, sex
and contraception.
Denying own needs and feelings. A mutual friend.
Unstigmatised support of relevant
professionals.
An increased risk of psychological The ability to
separate themselves either
problems, behavioural disorders, psychologically or
physically from
suicidal behaviours and offending. stressful
situations.
Low self-esteem.
Poor school attainment due to: Regular school
atttendance.
difficulties in concentration, poor Sympathetic, empathic
and vigilant
attendance in order to look after parents teachers.
or younger children, unacceptable A champion who acts
vigorously on
behaviour resulting in a pattern of behalf of the
child.
school exclusion. For those no longer in school, a
job.
The fear that revealing family problems A mentor or
trusted adult with whom the
will lead to the family being broken up. child can
discuss sensitive issues.
This may result in increased isolation Practical and
domestic help.
from friends and adults outside the family.
Increased risk of abuse. An alternative, safe and
supportive
Inappropriate role models. residence for children and
young people
subjected to violence or the threat of
violence.
Children’s perspectives
1.19 Finally, children’s own perspectives on their experiences are an
important source of
knowledge. Increasingly, the validity of children’s views on their lives
is acknowledged
in research. Children have views about what is happening to them. They
attach
meaning to events. They have wishes and feelings which must be taken
into account
and they will have ideas about the direction of decisions and the way in
which those
decisions are executed (for example, Butler and Williamson, 1994; Shaw,
1998;
Table 22 Vulnerabilities and strengths for
children aged 10–14 years and teenagers
15 years and over
2. Reproduced with kind permission of the author.
From: Cleaver H (2000a) When parents'
issues influence their ability to respond to
children's needs. In Horwath J (ed) The
Child's World:
Assessing Children in Need. The Reader. The NSPCC, London.
Brandon et al, 1999; Department of Health, forthcoming). Thomas and
Beckford
(1999), in their study of adopted children speaking, emphasise the
importance of
work with children being ‘underpinned by good adult-child and
child-adult
communication’. The responsibility for trying to establish effective
communication
lies firmly with the adults. They identify the following imperatives for
the adults
involved (pp.131–132):
_ Express
themselves simply and clearly and use concepts which are familiar to
children;
_ Match
their explanations of new ideas to the children’s age and levels of
understanding;
_ Be
aware of the possible impact of emotional distress on children’s understanding;
_ Elicit
children’s fears and offer reassurances;
_ Allow
children plenty of opportunities for asking questions;
_ Ask
children for feedback to see if information and explanations have been
remembered and understood;
_ Repeat,
simplify, expand and build on explanations if appropriate;
_ Use
communication tools such as games, prompt cards, books and videos.
Innovative materials for use with children and young peoples of
different ages and in
different circumstances have been developed which assist good
communication.
Examples are included in Chapter 4.
Parental capacity
1.20 Optimal child development is dependent on the positive role of
parents or caregivers
from children’ s birth to adulthood. However, it is recognised that
there can be a
diversity of family styles (Department of Health, 1989, p.7):
Although some basic needs are universal, there can be a variety of ways
of meeting
them. Patterns of family life differ according to culture, class and
community and
these differences should be respected and accepted. There is no one
perfect way to
bring up children and care must be taken to avoid value judgements and
stereotyping.
1.21 Rosenfeld et al (1986) add a note of caution about understanding
parents’ behaviours.
They emphasise that just because a behaviour is normative does not
necessarily mean
it is optimal for child development.
1.22 However, children’s chances of achieving optimal outcomes will
depend on their
parents’ capacities to respond appropriately to their needs at different
stages of their
lives. There are many factors in parents that may inhibit their
responses to their
children and prevent their providing parenting to a level necessary to
promote optimal
outcomes in children. The number of parents who set out to cause harm to
their
children is very small. The majority of parents, including most of those
who neglect or
maltreat their children, want to do the best for their children and have
their best
interests at heart. However, as Rutter (1974) (quoted by Utting (1995))
suggests:
9
Good parenting requires certain permitting circumstances. There must be
the
necessary life opportunities and facilities. Where these are lacking
even the best
parents may find it difficult to exercise these skills.
Most of the parents interviewed by Thoburn et al (2000) were well aware
that their
standard of parenting at times failed to meet their children’s needs.
1.23 Belsky and Vondra (1989) identify the multiple determinants of
parenting. They can
be summarised as follows:
_ Individual
(parental personality, child characteristics)
_ Historical
(parental developmental history)
_ Social
(partner satisfaction, social support network)
_ Circumstantial
(poverty; job dissatisfaction; ignorance about child development)
1.24 There are, therefore, many factors that may inhibit parenting
responses, including
parents’ life experiences as adults and in childhood. Reder and Duncan
(1999) suggest
that parents’ own childhood experiences may spill over into adult life.
For instance,
experiences of rejection, abandonment, neglect and feeling unloved as a
child may be
associated with excessive reliance on others and fear of being left, or
excessive
distancing from others and fear of dependency in adulthood. As with
children, it is
important to understand both the nature of the adversity parents have
experienced
and the level of any protective factors which can build resilience in
adult life to help
overcome adversity. For example, the important research of Rutter and
colleagues on
intergenerational factors showed that the presence of a supportive
partner in
adulthood could help counteract negative experiences of growing up in
care (Rutter
and Rutter, 1992).
1.25 Some parents may have serious health problems or impairments which
may place
upon children responsibilities inappropriate to their years unless
informal support
and appropriate services are provided for the family, in consultation
with the child
(Aldridge and Becker, 1999; Tucker et al, 1999). It is therefore
necessary for social
workers to understand what may inhibit parental responses to children
and what the
consequences of that inappropriate response may be for children of
different ages.
1.26 Research studies (Department of Health, 1995; Department of Health,
forthcoming)
have suggested that, among problems likely to affect parenting are
mental illness,
problem alcohol and drug use and domestic violence (Buchanan (ed), 1994;
Cleaver
and Freeman, 1995; Reder and Lucey, 1995; Falkov, 1996; Brandon et al,
1999;
Cleaver et al, 1999; Thoburn et al, 2000; Department of Health,
forthcoming). A
study for the Department of Health by Falkov of local reviews of deaths
and serious
injuries to children revealed that in a significant proportion, mothers
were suffering
from identifiable mental illnesses (Falkov, 1996). Cleaver et al (1999)
particularly
emphasise the damaging effects for a child of living with and witnessing
domestic
violence between adult members of the household.
10
1.27 It is important, therefore, that practitioners understand the
impact of parental
responses on the particular child. A two year old may be at risk of
significant harm
from a parent whose practical caring skills are diminished by a misuse
of drugs or
alcohol but a sixteen year old in a similar situation may be able to
remain relatively
unharmed. Understanding the interaction between parents’ responses and
capabilities
and children’s needs is a key principle underpinning effective
assessment and
intervention. As Cleaver (2000a) points out, not all children are
equally vulnerable to
the adverse consequences of parental problems.
1.28 Research suggests (Cleaver et al, 1999) children are less likely to
be adversely affected
when parental problems are:
_ Mild
and of short duration;
_ Not
associated with family violence, conflict and disorganisation;
_ Do
not result in the family breaking up.
Children may also be protected when other responsible adults are
involved in child
care, or assume the role of the child’s champion or mentor. Careful
account should be
taken, therefore, of the context within which the parent or parents may
be experiencing
problems and the impact of parental behaviour on the child.
1.29 Some parents may be directly responsible for maltreating their
children. Bentovim
(1998, p.57) argues that ‘significant harm represents a major symptom of
failure of
adaptation by parents to their role’:
It may be useful to think of significant harm generally as a compilation
of significant
events, both acute and long-standing, which interact with the child’s
ongoing
development, and interrupt, alter, or impair physical and psychological
development. Being the victim of significant harm is likely to have a
profound effect
on a child’s view of themself as a person, and on their future lives.
Significant harm
represents a major symptom of failure of adaptation by parents to their
role, and
also involves both the family and society.
1.30 Writers such as Adcock (1998) and Brandon et al (1999) draw an
important
distinction between significant harm and abuse. Adcock (1998, p.35)
argues that:
Significant harm needs to be understood separately from child abuse or
neglect,
although the two may coexist. The two can be differentiated by the idea
that child
abuse describes acts and omissions, significant harm
describes effects . . . Ill Treatment
may lead to the impairment or likely impairment of health and
development . . .
Some children may need protection to prevent the recurrence (of ill
treatment); any
child whose health or development has been impaired may need services to
deal
with consequences of this.
1.31 Not only parent figures or caregivers maltreat children.
Additionally, children may be
abused by siblings. Outside their families, children may also be at risk
of encountering
perpetrators. Utting (Department of Health and Welsh Office, 1997) has
drawn
attention to the particular dangers of child sexual abuse for children
living away from
home. It is important to understand why adults or other children
maltreat children.
Social workers should inform themselves about the characteristics of
personality and
behaviour, profiles and methods of perpetrators of different forms of
child
11
maltreatment, including physical, sexual and emotional abuse, both where
children
are living with their families and elsewhere (Department of Health,
2000a).
Parents’ Perspectives
1.32 Parents’ views about their contact with child welfare and other
statutory services have
been well documented, particularly when there have been child protection
concerns
(for example, Cleaver and Freeman, 1995; Farmer and Owen, 1995; Jones
and
Ramchandani, 1999; Thoburn et al, 2000). Aldgate and Bradley (1999) in
their study
of short-term accommodation found how these experiences influenced
parental
worries about asking for help from social services when they needed
assistance.
Parents’ worries were about:
_ being
vulnerable to child protection enquiries and being afraid of losing their
children;
_ being
perceived as failed parents;
_ the
impact of using short term accommodation on their children and being
detrimental to their future relationship with them.
1.33 The sense of losing control once child welfare agencies are
involved is keenly felt by
parents. They want help but not at the cost of forfeiting their
parenting responsibilities.
Ghate and Hazel (forthcoming) found in a national study of parenting in
poor
environments that parents’ wish to stay in control of the delivery of
support services
was an overriding theme.
1.34 What parents value from child welfare agencies is clearly detailed
in studies of family
support services (see Butt and Box, 1998; McAuley, 1999; Social Services
Inspectorate,
1999; Tunstill and Aldgate, 2000), in studies of contact (Cleaver,
2000b) and of
court processes (Hunt et al 1999) and includes:
_ communication
which is open, honest, timely and informative;
_ social
work time with someone who listens, gives feedback, information,
reassurance and advice, and is reliable;
_ services
which are practical, tailored to particular needs and accessible;
_ an
approach which re-inforces and does not undermine their parenting capacity.
These issues are explored further in later chapters in this practice
guidance.
Theories and myths of the individual in society
1.35 Alongside the theories concerned with the development of
individuals are those
related to the individual in society. There is a wealth of knowledge
from sociological
and psychological research which provides important background material
for
understanding the impact of negative factors such as social exclusion,
racial and other
discrimination, deviancy and unsafe communities on the children and
families with
whom practitioners will come in contact. Of particular relevance in
assessment are
sociological theories concerned with the issues of social exclusion and
use or misuse of
power, such as social constructionism and stereotyping. Writing on the
identification
12
of child abuse, for example, Parton (1987) discusses how the parameters
of child abuse
have changed over time.
1.36 Good outcomes for children have sometimes been blocked by
assumptions which
tend to stereotype families. This is especially pertinent in relation to
black children.
Ahmed et al (1986), for example, were among the first black British
writers in social
work to emphasise the negative impact of institutional racism on service
provision for
black children and their families. The picture from recent research is
complex. Some
research suggests that black and other minority ethnic groups are
under-represented as
service users receiving preventive and supportive social services
(Tunstill and Aldgate,
2000). However, when black and minority ethnic families are referred to
social
services, it is less likely to be about concerns of maltreatment but
more likely to be with
a request for a specific service (Thoburn et al, 2000). The following
chapter by Dutt
and Phillips provides a helpful comparison of black and white families
in relation to
the assessment of children’s needs. They draw attention to factors such
as family
structures, cultural values, and discuss the myths and realities of
black family
networks. Accurate information of this type helps to remove confusion
and
uncertainty and avoids stereotyping of children and families.
1.37 It is also important not to confuse theory with ideology. Work with
children and
families has sometimes been subject to fashionable ideologies which may
dictate the
style of work adopted. Ideological approaches, for example, ‘all
children should be in
family based care because residential care is bad for them’ or ‘siblings
should be kept
together at all costs’ should never get in the way of ethical and
professional practice
which discriminates effectively in relation to the developmental needs
of a particular
child.
Wider family, community and environmental factors
1.38 The role of the wider family can be a significant source of
support. Conversely,
extended families may not always be supportive. Sometimes, even when
families live
nearby, links are not maintained (Aldgate and Bradley, 1999). Thoburn et
al (2000)
found that, at times, the stresses within the whole family were such
that grandparents
and other relatives could not find a way to help, or were too caught up
in their own
problems. Some parents do not always wish to acknowledge to their wider
kin that
they are not coping with a burgeoning problem. However, Brandon et al
(1999) found
that when problems became serious, extended family members are likely to
rally
round to provide protection and care.
1.39 Similarly, the contribution of the community in providing practical
and emotional
support to the immediate family also needs to be understood. Living in a
supportive
community may offer considerable help to parents. It may be important to
chart both
families’ interrelationships over time and their current wider
connections in the
communities in which they live. Genograms and Ecomaps may be useful
means of
doing this with families (Appendices 2 and 3 respectively).
1.40 Social isolation, through an absence of both physical and emotional
support, is an
important factor in limiting adults’ sense of wellbeing and control over
their lives (see
Argyle, 1992; Coohey, 1996; Aldgate and Bradley, 1999). Research from
HomeStart
has also suggested that social isolation is one of the major reasons for
referral for
13
befriending support (McAuley, 1999). A two year survey of referrals to
HomeStart
(Northern Ireland) indicated that the predominant referrers were health
visitors and
that the five main reasons for referrals were:
_ Mother’s
mental health (with postnatal depression being most prevalent);
_ Mother’s
physical health;
_ Multiple
births/multiple young children;
_ Child/ren’s
special needs eg. health problems;
_ Mother’s
isolation/loneliness.
1.41 Where social isolation is combined with fears for personal safety
because of a hostile
neighbourhood, cumulative negative factors can have an impact on
parents’ mental
and physical health. Additionally, the part the wider family and others
may play in
organised abuse needs to be understood (Cleaver, 1996). This includes
the threats to
children from dangerous individuals in unsafe communities.
1.42 Finally, there is considerable evidence which catalogues the impact
of the
environment on parental capacity. The impact on families’ health and
wellbeing is
well known (for example, Bradshaw, 1990; Utting, 1995; Acheson, 1998).
The day to
day meaning of living on a low income is summarised by Amin and
Oppenheim
(1992, p.36), who describe material disadvantage as:
...a kind of partial citizenship, since the effects of material
deprivation make it very
difficult to participate in society as a full member...
1.43 The importance of recognising the interface between families and
the communities in
which they live has recently been identified by the Social Exclusion
Unit (1998, p.9):
While most areas have benefited from rising living standards, the
poorest
neighbourhoods have tended to become more rundown, more prone to crime
and
more cut off from the labour market.
1.44 Writers such as Jack (1997) and Stevenson (1998) have been
concerned at the
omission of environmental considerations from the social work process.
Research
studies have shown the strong association between economic disadvantage
and living
conditions and the chances that children will fail to thrive (Utting,
1995; Iwaniec,
1996). Differences are clearly apparent in the health and educational
development of
children growing up in areas of deprivation. This has its impact both on
young adults’
ability to succeed as effective parents and directly on children
themselves, through the
standards of school available to them, the sub-culture of peer groups
with whom they
relate and the community facilities provided.
1.45 Holman at a conference in 1998 put it starkly: ‘Poverty undermines
parenting’. The
meaning of living in continuing poverty is exemplified by Anita in her
account of
bringing up her children in an environment of social deprivation, in
Holman’s Faith in
the Poor (1998, pp.96–98):
Poverty is a terrible thing. I just cannot cope with what I am getting
on income
support. I just wish I could feed and clothe my children but it is
impossible with
what I receive . . . I am really worried about the kids growing up in
Easterhouse . . .
I know in my heart they will either turn to drugs or end up in prison.
My kids keep
asking to move. They are lovely kids and intelligent and I would dearly
love to see
14
them make something of themselves . . . but what can I do with no money?
My
children don’t stand a chance.
1.46 Bebbington and Miles (1989) have demonstrated how the cumulative
effect of
disadvantage can dramatically increase a child’s chances of coming into
the care
system:
15
Child ‘A’ Child ‘B’
Aged 5–9 Aged 5–9
No dependence on social security benefits Household
head receives income support
Two parent family Single adult household
Three or fewer children Four or more children
White Mixed ethnic origin
Owner occupied home Privately rented home
More rooms than people One or more persons per room
Odds are 1 in 7,000 Odds are 1 in 10
1.47 The relationship between disability and disadvantage is also
important and has not
always been well understood. This is well evidenced in the study by
Lawton (1998) of
families with more than one disabled child (of which there are some
17,000 in the
United Kingdom). Such families are:
_ more
likely to be single parents;
_ less
likely to be in work;
_ more
likely to be in semi-skilled or unskilled jobs;
_ more
likely to be dependent on income support;
_ less
likely to own their own home;
_ more
likely to report housing as unsuitable;
_ more
likely to have extra costs
This study serves to reinforce the importance of considering the wider
context in
which families are caring for and bringing up disabled children (issues
which are
discussed more fully in Chapter 3).
1.48 The evidence suggests that the families of many children in need
who are most
disadvantaged are those living in poverty, in poor housing, without
adequate social
supports and in the poorest, hostile neighbourhoods. These families face
multiple
stresses which are interlinked. McAuley (1999) includes the following
example in her
study.
Table 3 The cumulate effect of disadvantage
Overarching theories and approaches that inform
practice
1.49 Practitioners have the arduous task of making sense of the wealth
of theory and
knowledge informing their assessments. Psychodynamic and learning
theories help to
understand the inner and outer worlds of children and families, while
eco-systems
theory provides a very helpful framework to analyse the interconnections
between
personal and environmental factors which have an impact upon the lives
of children
and families. These are more fully discussed in Seden’s review of the
literature on
assessment of children and their families (Department of Health, 2000b).
1.50 The ecological approach takes the view that individuals are
connected to and interact
with the environment in which they live. The approach is well
established in the social
sciences (Siporin, 1975; Maluccio, 1981; Garbarino, 1982). A key
exponent of this
theory, Bronfenbrenner (1979) outlines its relevance to social work with
children and
families. He places children’s lives in the context of a series of
systems: the immediate
settings of home, school, friendship group and their interrelationship;
local social
structures which influence those settings; and the larger institutional
patterns of
economic, social, educational, legal and political systems. Updated
applications of
ecological theory are to be found in the paper by Jack (1997), in
Stevenson’s study of
neglected children (1998), and in relation to child maltreatment by
Jones and
Ramchandani (1999).
1.51 Workers have at their disposal knowledge of human growth and
development in
children and families, knowledge of the environment and community and of
the
interaction between all these elements. A concrete example of how
different and
interconnecting knowledge and systems may be translated into practice in
relation to
16
Example of interplay of factors causing stress
The parents had two children under five years of age.
The mother had had a medical
condition for some time, but her health suddenly
deteriorated, leaving her unable to walk.
She had been admitted to hospital immediately. On her
return home, she fell whilst
attempting to walk in her home and broke her arm. Her
husband had been off work with
ill health. She went on to describe her predicament
when the HomeStart Organiser first
came to see her:
I was completely useless. I couldn’t even, obviously
with a plaster cast on, I couldn’t
do something as simple as wash myself. I could just
about feed myself and no more.
P (her husband) had to basically cut up my meals for
me. I couldn’t change S’s
nappies or wash or iron. Those were things I had
always done and P was having to
do that. And he couldn’t do that and look after the
kids. It just really . . . .everything
sort of went to pot . . . It was every kind of stress
and with him being off for two
years with no wages, we couldn’t pay someone to come
in and help us . . . My kids
have never been separated from me before . . When I
came home (from hospital)
they were extremely insecure . . they really took my
hospitalisation majorly badly . . .
Any kind of disappearance at all, be it only for a few
seconds to the back garden,
you know, the kids panicked and were in hysterics and
had to be completely
reassured.
McAuley (1999, pp.33–34)
child maltreatment comes from Jones and Ramchandani (1999) in Figure 3.
Similarly
helpful examples can be found in Crossing Bridges (Falkov (ed), 1998,
p.75) and the
work of Capaldi and Eddy (in press) in relation to children with conduct
disorders.
1.52 As Cox (1993) and others have pointed out, what is significant for
a family may be the
processes generated by an event or events which may interact with the
child’s needs
and the surrounding vulnerabilities and protective factors. The event or
events may set
off a cycle or chain of interaction. In assessing what is happening to a
child and family,
thought is required about the process which has been generated and the
maintenance
of momentum. The importance of context is therefore critical in
understanding the
relationship between outcomes and those events which act as stressors.
Reder and
Duncan (1999) provide a useful summary of the key issues which should be
kept in
mind during the assessment process:
1.53 Another way of understanding what is happening in family
functioning draws from
the systemic approach which has evolved from cybernetic theory or the
study of
communication. The theory focuses on people in their current social and
economic
context and the beliefs underpinning their behaviour. It seeks to
explain human
problems in terms of relationships rather than individual
characteristics or pathology.
Problems in systems often arise from attempts to adjust to life events
and are linked to
notions of circular and reciprocal cause and effect. The systemic
practitioner,
therefore, seeks to identify repetitive sequences of interaction which
maintain and are
maintained by the original or subsequent problems. Accounts of the
development and
use of the theory are found, for example, in Gorrell-Barnes (1994) and
White and
Epston (1990).
1.54 Both systems and ecological models consider how the support
services, including
social workers and other professionals, add to or detract from the
family’s coping
mechanisms.
Methods of intervention
1.55 During the process of assessment, workers will be thinking about
interventions that
will best help children and families. The choice of intervention will be
governed by
many factors. Among these will be the appropriate application of social
work
methods. These methods have been developed from a range of psychosocial
theories.
17
Key issues for assessment
_ Context gives meaning to behaviour
_ Individuals exist in relationships to others
_ Relationship and communication are a function of each other
_ Current relationships arise out of historical influences
_ Interactions revolve around the meaning of one person for another
_ There is circularity between a person’s inner and outer world
Reder and Duncan (1999)
18
Figure 3 A developmental and ecological perspective
on child maltreatment
Parent's
childhood
Parent's
childhood
Parent's
childhood
Reabuse, child safety
Child's attributions/coping
Parent/child relationship
Social and family support
Professional response
Therapy
School
Effective development
outcome
Ineffectual/Problematic
———————————
Behaviour
Affective development
Cognitive
Relationships
Socialisation
Personality
Physical sequelae
Cultural and social influences
Family
Parent/Child
School Neighbourhood
Child
Relationship
Extended Family
Social contacts Work
PRE-EXISTING INFLUENCES SETTING FOR ABUSE
(Ecology of maltreatment)
INTERVENING FACTORS
(Compensatory or potentiating)
OUTCOME
(Adaptive or maladaptive)
Reproduced with kind permission of the authors.
From: Jones D and Ramchandani P (1999) Child Sexual
Abuse. Informing Practice from Research. Radcliffe Medical Press, Abingdon.
The methods include psychosocial casework, cognitive behavioural work,
counselling, family therapy, task-centred casework, crisis intervention
and so forth.
Part of the assessment will be to think about which particular method
will be best
suited to the needs of individual children and their families. The
approach must be
eclectic. Workers may have their favoured approaches but it is not
appropriate to use
one method in all circumstances to the exclusion of all others. Choice
of method
should also be influenced by knowledge of what works in particular
circumstances.
For example, Jones and Ramchandani (1999), in writing about child sexual
abuse,
conclude that the ‘best available evidence points to the use of focused
therapies based
on a cognitive-behavioural model being the most effective way of
treating these
symptoms’. However, they warn that ‘no single therapy has demonstrable
benefits for
all children who have been sexually abused’ (Jones and Ramchandani,1999,
p.72).
Texts based on clinical work like that of Jewett (1982) on helping
children manage
separation and loss, Fahlberg’s (1991) work on children in transitions,
and examples
of clinical practice in direct work with children from Aldgate and
Simmonds (1988)
all have a major contribution to play in building up a repertoire of
methods of
intervention rooted in theory, research and good practice.
Roles and tasks of child and family workers
1.56 Of course in practice it is very difficult to separate the
boundaries between assessment
and intervention. Having established what is happening to a child within
the context
of his or her family and environment and the impact on the child, the
purpose of
assessment will change (Jones, 1998, p.111):
Later on, the process develops into an assessment of the likelihood of
change,
followed by whether such change is achieved. Looked at this way,
assessment
continues throughout intervention.
1.57 Another important dimension of assessing the appropriate
intervention is the decision
whether the child remains at home or is looked after away from home, and
whether
this should be on a short term or permanent basis. Where a child is
looked after, it will
be important to consider all the factors surrounding placement choice,
including
plans for reunification and adoption (Thoburn et al, 1986; Department of
Health,
1989; Department of Health, 1991b; Department of Health, 1999). Any
decisions
which involve changes for children must take account of their
developmental needs.
Principles of stability and continuity are important for children at any
level of
intervention, as are principles of safeguarding and promoting children’s
welfare.
1.58 Furthermore, the communication skills and interactions required to
gather
information will inevitably trigger in some children and families the
beginning of
problem solving processes. Recent research on family support has
suggested that a
short encounter between a social worker and a family to assess
difficulties may be in
itself a problem solving experience. The exchange and synthesis of
information
between family members and the worker may be enough to help the family
without
further social work intervention. At the other end of the continuum,
long-term help
will be necessary for a significant number of families (Department of
Health,
forthcoming). Schofield and Brown (1999) and Thoburn et al (2000) urge
that
workers remember the importance of the professional relationship between
worker
and children and families in any direct encounter with families.
19
1.59 Methods of intervention are only part of the knowledge base that
practitioners need
for assessment. They are important because good assessments are built on
an
integration of theory and practice. Knowledge is being continually
developed by
research findings and the evolution of new and existing theories. These
include
knowledge about child development, parenting and the impact of parental
difficulties, and the significance of environmental factors. Work with
children and
families does not take place within a vacuum but in an organisational
and legislative
context. Understanding the roles and tasks of a worker, not only within
the context of
his or her own agency but also taking account of the roles and tasks of
other workers
and the contexts of agencies which are likely to be contributing to the
promotion of
the welfare of the child, is another area of knowledge essential to the
assessment
process. In this respect, it is also important to take account of the
impact of agency
factors on outcomes for children.
1.60 Effective collaboration between workers in different agencies is
notoriously difficult to
achieve. Recognition that inter-agency co-operation is required is not
new. Hallett
and Stevenson (1980) cite ‘a government circular (Home Office, 1950) on
ill-treated
children which recommended the establishment of children’s co-ordinating
committees’ (p.1). However, the difficulties and ‘failures’ in
inter-agency working
have been well documented in reviews of individual cases of child
maltreatment and in
more broadly based research studies (Department of Health and Social
Security, 1982;
Department of Health, 1991a; Department of Health, 1995; Hallett, 1995).
Hudson
(2000) helpfully explores these issues, noting that governments have
again and again
exhorted public sector services to work more closely together (p.235):
There is a paradox here, with ‘collaboration’ seen as both problem and
solution –
failure to work together is the problem, therefore the solution is to
work together!
1.61 He gives a salutory reminder that the literature constantly focuses
on the barriers to
collaboration including structural, professional, financial, status and
legitimacy
factors, but that ‘inter-organisational relationships are largely built
upon human
relationships’ (p.254). Some of the important messages for collaborative
working
which practitioners should understand are summarised below:
The challenge of evidence based work
1.62 The Introduction to this practice guidance emphasised the
importance placed on
evidence based practice. This is a marked shift from thinking about
evidence only as
20
Collaborative Working: General Messages
_ Reciprocity is the basis of collaboration
_ Collaboration is a continuum with choices
_ Collaboration requires a consensus of stakeholders
_ Collaboration requires an expression of purpose
_ Trust is essential to collaborative success
Hudson et al (1999)
part of judicial processes. Rowe drew this out succinctly in Patterns
and Outcomes in
Child Placement (Department of Health, 1991b, pp.77–78):
Social workers tend to think of evidence in terms of court hearings and
reports, but
evidence in the sense of ‘facts which lead to conclusions’ must be at
the heart of
every decision. The whole child care service, from strategic planning to
monitoring
of individual outcomes, is permeated by questions of evidence.
Gathering, testing,
recording and weighing evidence are tasks basic to professional
competence, but are
seldom addressed in these terms… Decisions can only be as good as the
evidence on
which they are based…
1.63 Throughout the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need
and their Families
(Department of Health et al, 2000) and the materials produced to
accompany the
guidance, the sources of knowledge which have been used have been
referenced and
discussed to assist practitioners to develop their own knowledge base.
However,
evidence based practice also refers to the process whereby
practitioners gather relevant
information about what is happening to a child and use their knowledge
from research
findings, theoretical ideas and practical experience to arrive at a
greater understanding
of a particular child and family’s experiences. Reder and Duncan (1999)
provide a
helpful discussion of this process, emphasising the importance of the
application of
knowledge at each stage of work with children and families. They refer
to this as the
development of a ‘dialetic’ mindset (p.98):
Put at its simplest, assessment comes before action and the impact of
actions needs
to be monitored. Therefore, assessment should be an evolving process in
which
thought and action are reciprocal. Actions are guided by thought and the
consequences of action are noted, considered and fed back to influence
further
action.
1.64 Thus, evidence based work also requires the careful use of
knowledge gained during
work with a child and family to undertake the task of determining what
is most
relevant in a family’s situation, what is most significant for the
child, the impact
intervention is having and the judgement about when more or less action
is required
in the child’s best interests.
1.65 Hunt et al (1999), in their study of the use of courts following
the implementation of
the Children Act 1989, explore the challenge of an evidence based
approach for practitioners
in that context (p.391):
The new criteria for statutory intervention, for instance, and the
emphasis on
partnership with parents, place a premium on the capacity of social
workers and
their managers to evaluate evidence and manage risk, to develop skills
at working
with families in a voluntary framework and judging the point at which it
is not
viable. Once a case comes to court the social worker is expected to
present coherent
written evidence on what may well now be a more complex involvement with
the
family, be au fait with court procedures and be a competent witness even
though the
opportunities to accumulate court experiences are less frequent.
1.66 Although the principle of evidence based practice applies to all
professionals who
work with children and families, it is perhaps social work practitioners
who are experiencing
the challenge most keenly. It is essential for effective assessment of
children in
need and their families that social work is a confident profession,
particularly in the
21
context of inter-agency collaboration with other professionals. This
requires social
workers to be sure of their professional expertise and the knowledge on
which they
draw to form their professional judgements. Higham (Community Care,
1999) sums
up this challenge:
If social work is to develop further in the twenty-first century,
practitioners must
not rely soley on practice wisdom for decision making but use evidence
based
knowledge … Social work beyond the millennium needs to come of age. This
will
happen when social workers find an effective voice, develop new roles
and establish
a better knowledge base for their practice.
22
23
MARY SHERIDAN
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
1 MONTH
Lies back with head to one side; arm and leg on
same side outstretched, or both arms flexed; knees
apart, soles of feet turned inwards.
Large jerky movements of limbs, arms more active
than legs.
At rest, hands closed and thumb turned in.
Fingers and toes fan out during extenor movements
of limbs.
When cheek touched, turns to same side; ear gently
rubbed, turns head away.
When lifted or pulled to sit head falls loosely
backwards.
Held sitting, head falls forward, with back in one
complete curve.
Placed downwards on face, head immediately turns
to side; arms and legs flexed under body, buttocks
humped up.
Held standing on hard surface, presses down feet,
straightens body and often makes reflex ‘stepping’
movements.
Turns head and eyes towards light.
Stares expressionlessly at brightness of window or
blank wall.
Follows pencil flash-lamp briefly with eyes at 1 foot.
Shuts eyes tightly when pencil light shone directly
into them at 1–2 inches.
Notices silent dangling toy shaken in line of vision
at
6–8 inches and follows its slow movement with eyes
from side towards mid-line on level with face
through approximately quarter circle, before head
falls back to side.
Gazes at mother’s nearby face when she feeds or
talks to him with increasingly alert facial
expression.
Startled by sudden loud noises, stiffens, quivers,
blinks, screws eyes up, extends limbs, fans out
fingers and toes, and may cry.
Movements momentarily ‘frozen’, when small bell
rung gently 3–5 inches from ear for 3–5 seconds,
with 5 second pauses; may ‘corner’ eyes towards
sound.
Stops whimpering to sound of nearby soothing
human voice, but not when screaming or feeding.
Cries lustily when hungry or uncomfortable.
Utters little gutteral noises when content.
(Note: Deaf babies also cry and vocalise in
this reflex
way, but if very deaf do not usually show startle
reflex to sudden noises. Blind babies may also move
eyes towards a sound-making toy. Vision should
always be checked separately.)
Sucks well.
Sleeps much of the time when not being fed or
handled.
Expression still vague, but becoming more alert,
progressing to social smiling about 5–6 weeks.
Hands normally closed, but if opened, grasps
examiner’s finger when palm is touched.
Stops crying when picked up and spoken to.
Mother supports head when carrying, dressing and
bathing.
3 MONTHS
Now prefers to lie on back with head in mid-line.
Limbs more pliable, movements smoother and more
continuous.
Waves arms symmetrically. Hands now loosely
open.
Brings hands together from side into mid-line over
chest or chin.
Kicks vigorously, legs alternating or occasionally
together. Held sitting, holds back straight, except in
lumbar region, with head erect and steady for
several seconds before bobbing forwards. Placed
downwards on face lifts head and upper chest well
up in mid-line, using forearms as support, and often
scratching at table surface; legs straight, buttocks
flat.
Held standing with feet on hard surface, sags at
knees.
Visually very alert, particularly interested in nearby
human faces.
Moves head deliberately to look around him.
Follows adult’s movements near cot.
Follows dangling toy at 6–10 inches above face
through half circle from side to side, and usually
also
vertically from chest to brow.
Watches movements of own hands before face and
beginning to clasp and unclasp hands together in
finger play.
Recognises feeding bottle and makes eager
welcoming movements as it approaches his face.
Regards still objects within 6–10 inches for more
than a second or two, but seldom fixates
continuously.
Comerges eyes as dangling toy is moved towards
face. Defensive blink shown.
Sudden loud noises still distress, provoking blinking,
screwing up of eyes, crying and turning away.
Definite quietening or smiling to sound of mother’s
voice before she touches him, but not when
screaming.
Vocalises freely when spoken to or pleased.
Cries when uncomfortable or annoyed.
Quietens to tinkle of spoon in cup or to bell rung
gently out of sight for 3–5 seconds at 6–12 inches
from ear.
May turn eyes and head towards sound; brows may
wrinkle and eyes dilate.
Often licks lips in response to sounds of preparation
for feeding.
Shows excitement at sound of approaching
footsteps, running bath water, voices, etc.,
(Note: Deaf baby, instead, may be obviously
startled by mother’s sudden appearance beside cot.)
Fixes eyes unblinkingly on mother’s face when
feeding.
Beginning to react to familiar situations – showing
by smiles, coos, and excited movements that he
recognises preparation for feeds, baths, etc.
Responds with obvious pleasure to friendly
handling, especially when accompanied by playful
tickling and vocal sounds.
Holds rattle for few moments when placed in hand,
but seldom capable of regarding it at same time.
Mother supports at shoulders when dressing and
bathing.
APPENDIX 1
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children
24
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
6 MONTHS
Lying on back, raises head from pillow.
Lifts legs into vertical and grasps foot.
Sits with support in cot or pram and turns head from
side to look around him.
Moves arms in brisk and purposeful fashion and
holds them up to be lifted.
When hands grasped braces shoulders and pulls
himself up.
Kicks strongly, legs alternating.
Can roll over, front to back.
Held sitting, head is firmly erect, and back straight.
May sit alone momentarily.
Placed downwards on face lifts head and chest well
up, supporting himself on extended arms.
Held standing with feet touching hard surface bears
weight on feet and bounces up and down actively.
Visually insatiable: moves head and eyes eagerly in
every direction.
Eyes move in unison: squint now abnormal.
Follows adult’s movements across room.
Immediately fixates interesting small objects within
6–12 inches (eg, toy, bell, wooden cube, spoon,
sweet) and stretches out both hands to grasp them.
Uses whole hand in palmar grasp.
When toys fall from hand over edge of cot forgets
them.
(Watches rolling balls of 2 to 1/4 inch diameter
at
10 feet).
Turns immediately to mother’s voice across room.
Vocalises tunefully and often, using single and
double syllables, eg. ka, muh, goo, der, adah, er-lah.
Laughs, chuckles and squeals aloud in play
Screams with annoyance.
Shows evidence of response to different emotional
tones of mother’s voice.
Responds to baby hearing test at 11/2 feet from each
ear by correct visual localisation, but may show
slightly brisker response on one side.
(Tests employed – voice, rattle, cup and spoons,
paper, bell; 2 seconds with 2 seconds pause.)
Hands competent to reach for and grasp small toys.
Most often uses a two-handed, scooping-in
approach, but occasionally a single hand.
Takes everything to mouth.
Beginning to find feet interesting and even useful in
grasping.
Puts hands to bottle and pats it when feeding.
Shakes rattle deliberately to make it sound, often
regarding it closely at same time.
Still friendly with strangers but occasionally shows
some shyness or even slight anxiety, especially if
mother is out of sight.
9 MONTHS
Sits alone for 10–15 minutes on floor.
Can turn body to look sideways while stretching out
to grasp dangling toy or to pick up toy from floor.
Arms and legs very active in cot, pram and bath.
Progresses on floor by rolling or squirming.
Attempts to crawl on all fours.
Pulls self to stand with support.
Can stand holding on to support for a few
moments, but cannot lower himself.
Held standing, steps purposefully on alternate feet.
Very observant.
Stretches out, one hand leading, to grasp small
objects immediately on catching sight of them.
Manipulates objects with lively interest, passing
from hand to hand, turning over, etc.
Pokes at small sweet with index finger. Grasps
sweets, string, etc., between finger and thumb in
scissor fashion.
Can release toy by pressing against firm surface, but
cannot yet put down precisely.
Searches in correct place for toys dropped within
reach of hands.
Looks after toys falling over edge of pram or table.
Watches activities of adults, children and animals
within 10–12 feet with eager interest for several
seconds at a time.
(Watches rolling balls 21/8 inches at 10 feet.)
Vocalises deliberately as means of interpersonal
communication.
Shouts to attract attention, listens, then shouts
again.
Babbles tunefully, repeating syllables in long strings
(mam-man, bab-bab, dad-dad, etc.)
Understands ‘No-No’ and ‘Bye-Bye’.
Tries to imitate adults’ playful vocal sounds, eg.
smacking lips, cough, brr, etc.
(Immediate localising response to baby hearing tests
at 3 feet from ear and above and below ear level.)
Holds, bites and chews biscuits.
Puts hands round bottle or cup when feeding.
Tries to grasp spoon when being fed.
Throws body back and stiffens in annoyance or
resistance.
Clearly distinguishes strangers from familiars, and
requires reassurance before accepting their
advances.
Clings to known adult and hides face.
Still takes everything to mouth.
Seizes bell in one hand, imitates ringing action,
waving or banging it on table, pokes clapper or
‘drinks’ from bowl.
Plays peek-a-boo.
Holds out toy held in hand to adult, but cannot yet
give.
Finds partially hidden toy.
May find toy hidden under cup.
Mother supports at lower spine when dressing.
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children – continued
25
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
12 MONTHS
Sits well and for indefinite time.
Can rise to sitting position from lying down.
Crawls rapidly, usually on all fours.
Pulls to standing and lets himself down again
holding on to furniture.
Walks round furniture stepping sideways.
Walks with one or both hands held.
May stand alone for a few moments.
May walk alone.
Picks up small objects, eg blocks, string, sweets and
crumbs, with precise pincer grasp of thumb and
index finger.
Throws toys deliberately and watches them fall to
ground.
Looks in correct place for toys which roll out of
sight.
Points with index finger at objects he wants to
handle or which interest him.
Watches small toy pulled along floor across room
10 feet away.
Out of doors watches movements of people,
animals, motor cars, etc., with prolonged intent
regard.
Recognises familiars approaching from 20 feet or
more away.
Uses both hands freely, but may show preference
for one.
Clicks two bricks together in imitation.
(Watches rolling balls 21/8 inches at 10 feet.)
Knows and immediately turns to own name.
Babbles loudly, tunefully and incessantly.
Shows by suitable movements and behaviour that
he understands several words in usual context (eg.
own and family names, walk, dinner, pussy, cup,
spoon, ball, car).
Comprehends simple commands associated with
gesture (give it to daddy, come to mummy, say byebye,
clap hands, etc.)
Imitates adult’s playful vocalisations with gleeful
enthusiasm.
May hand examine common objects on request, eg.
spoon, cup, ball, shoe.
(Immediate response to baby tests at 3–41/2 feet but
rapidly habituates.)
Drinks from cup with little assistance. Chews.
Holds spoon but usually cannot use it alone.
Helps with dressing by holding out arm for sleeve
and foot for shoe.
Takes objects to mouth less often.
Puts wooden cubes in and out of cup or box.
Rattles spoon in cup in imitation.
Seizes bell by handle and rings briskly in imitation,
etc.
Listens with obvious pleasure to percussion sounds.
Repeats activities to reproduce effects.
Gives toys to adult on request and sometimes
spontaneously. Finds hidden toy quickly.
Likes to be constantly within sight and hearing of
adult.
Demonstrates affection to familiars.
Waves ‘bye-bye’ and claps hands in imitation or
spontaneously.
Child sits, or sometimes stands without support,
while mother dresses.
15 MONTHS
Walks unevenly with feet wide apart, arms slightly
flexed and held above head or at shoulder level to
balance.
Starts alone, but frequently stopped by falling or
bumping into furniture.
Lets himself down from standing to sitting by
collapsing backwards with bump, or occasionally by
falling forward on hands and then back to sitting.
Can get to feet alone.
Crawls upstairs.
Kneels unaided or with slight support on floor and in
pram, cot and bath.
May be able to stoop to pick up toys from floor.
Picks up string, small sweets and crumbs neatly
between thumb and finger.
Builds tower of two cubes after demonstration.
Grasps crayon and imitates scribble after
demonstration.
Looks with interest at pictures in book and pats
page.
Follows with eyes path of cube or small toy swept
vigorously from table.
Watches small toy pulled across floor up to 12 feet.
Points imperiously to objects he wishes to be given.
Stands at window and watches events outside
intently for several minutes.
(Watches and retrieves rolling balls of 21/8 inches at
10 feet.)
Jabbers loudly and freely, using wide range of
inflections and phonetic units.
Speaks 2–6 recognisable words and understands
many more.
Vocalises wishes and needs at table.
Points to familiar persons, animals, toys, etc., when
requested.
Understands and obeys simple commands (eg. shut
the door, give me the ball, get your shoes).
(Baby test 41/2–6 feet.)
Holds cup when adult gives and takes back.
Holds spoon, brings it to mouth and licks it, but
cannot prevent its turning over. Chews well.
Helps more constructively with dressing.
Indicates when he has wet pants.
Pushes large wheeled toy with handle on level
ground.
Seldom takes toy to mouth.
Repeatedly casts objects to floor in play or
rejection,
usually without watching fall.
Physically restless and intensely curious.
Handles everything within reach.
Emotionally labile.
Closely dependent upon adult’s reassuring
presence.
Needs constant supervision to protect child from
dangers of extended exploration and exploitation of
environment.
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children – continued
26
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
18 MONTHS
Walks well with feet only slightly apart, starts and
stops safely.
Runs stifly upright, eyes fixed on ground 1–2 yards
ahead, but cannot continue to run round obstacles.
Pushes and pulls large toys, boxes, etc., round floor.
Can carry large doll or teddy-bear while walking
and sometimes two.
Backs into small chair or slides in sideways.
Climbs forward into adult’s chair then turns round
and sits.
Walks upstairs with helping hand.
Creeps backwards down stairs.
Occasionally bumps down a few steps on buttocks
facing forwards.
Picks up toy from floor without falling.
Picks up small sweets, beads, pins, threads, etc.,
immediately on sight, with delicate pincer grasp.
Spontaneous scribble when given crayon and paper,
using preferred hand.
Builds tower of three cubes after demonstration.
Enjoys simple picture book, often recognising and
putting finger on coloured items on page.
Turns pages 2 or 3 at a time.
Fixes eyes on a small dangling toy up to 10 feet.
(May tolerate this test with each eye separately.)
Points to distant interesting objects out of doors.
(Watches and retrieves rolling balls 2–1/2 inches at
10 feet.)
(Possibly recognises special miniature toys at 10
feet.)
Continues to jabber tunefully to himself at play.
Uses 6–20 recognisable words and understands
many more.
Echoes prominent or last word addressed to him.
Demands desired objects by pointing accompanied
by loud, urgent vocalisation or single words.
Enjoys nursery rhymes and tries to join in. Attempts
to sing.
Shows his own or doll’s hair, shoe, nose (Possibly
special 5 toy test. Possibly 4 animals picture test.)
Lifts and holds cup between both hands.
Drinks without spilling.
Hands cup back to adult. Choose well.
Holds spoon and gets food to mouth.
Takes off shoes, socks, hat.
Indicates toilet needs by restlessness and
vocalisation.
Bowel control usually attained.
Explores environment energetically.
No longer takes toys to mouth.
Remembers where objects belong.
Casts objects to floor in play or anger less often.
Briefly imitates simple activities, e.g. reading book,
kissing doll, brushing floor.
Plays contentedly alone, but likes to be near adult.
Emotionally still very dependent upon familiar adult,
especially mother.
Alternates between clinging and resistance.
2 YEARS
Runs safely on whole foot, stopping and starting
with ease and avoiding obstacles.
Squats to rest or to play with object on ground and
rises to feet without using hands.
Walks backwards pulling large toy.
Pulls wheeled toy by cord.
Climbs on furniture to look out of window or open
doors, etc., and can get down again.
Walks upstairs and down holding on to rail and wall;
two feet to a step.
Throws small ball without falling.
Walks into large ball when trying to kick it.
Sits astride large wheeled toy and propels forward
with feet on ground.
Picks up pins and thread, etc., neatly and quickly.
Removes paper wrapping from small sweet.
Builds lower of six cubes (or 6+).
Spontaneous circular scribble and dots when given
paper and pencil.
Imitates vertical line (and sometimes V).
Enjoys picture books, recognising fine details in
favourite pictures.
Turns pages singly.
Recognises familiar adults in photograph after once
shown.
Hand preference becoming evident.
(Immediately catches sight of, and names special
miniature toys at 10 feet distance. Will now usually
tolerate this test with each eye separately.)
(Watches and retrieves rolling balls 2 – 1/8 inches at
10 feet.)
Uses 50 or more recognisable words and
understands many more.
Puts 2 or more words together to form simple
sentences.
Refers to himself by name.
Talks to himself continually as he plays.
Echo(s) a almost constant, with one or more
stressed words repeated.
Constantly asking names of objects.
Joins in nursery rhymes and songs.
Shows correctly and repeats words for hair, hand,
feet, nose, eyes, mouth, shoe on request.
(6 toy test, 4 animals picture test.)
Lifts and drinks from cup and replaces on table.
Spoon-feeds without spilling.
Asks for food and drink. Chews competently.
Puts on hat and shoes.
Verbalises toilet needs in reasonable time.
Dry during day.
Turns door handles. Often runs outside to explore.
Follows mother round house and copies domestic
activities in simultaneous play.
Engages in simple make-believe activities.
Constantly demanding mother’s attention.
Clings lightly in affection, fatigue or fear.
Tantrums when frustrated but attention readily
distracted.
Defends own possessions with determination.
As yet no idea of sharing.
Plays near other children but not with them.
Resentful of attention shown to other children.
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children – continued
27
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
21/2 YEARS
Walks upstairs alone but downstairs holding rail,
two feet to a step.
Runs well straight forward and climbs easy nursery
apparatus.
Pushes and pulls large toys skillfully, but has
difficulty in steering them round obstacles.
Jumps with two feet together.
Can stand on tiptoe if shown.
Kicks large ball.
Sits on tricycle and steers with hands, but still
usually propels with feet on ground.
Picks up pins, threads, etc., with each eye covered
separately.
Builds tower of seven (or 7+) cubes and lines blocks
to form ‘train’.
Recognises minute details in picture books.
Imitates horizontal line and circle (also usually T
and
V).
Paints strokes, dots and circular shapes on easel.
Recognises himself in photographs when once
shown.
Recognises miniature toys and retrieves balls 21/8
inches at 10 feet, each eye separately.
(May also match special single letter-cards V, O, T, H
at 10 feet.)
Uses 200 or more recognisable words but speech
shows numerous infantilisms.
Knows full name.
Talks intelligibly to himself at play concerning
events
happening here and now.
Echolalia persists.
Continually asking questions beginning ‘What?’,
‘Where?’.
Uses pronouns, I, me and you.
Stuttering in eagerness common.
Says a few nursery rhymes.
Enjoys simple familiar stories read from picture
book.
(6 toy test, 4 animal picture test, 1st cube test.
Full
doll vocabulary.)
Eats skilfully with spoon and may use fork.
Pulls down pants or knickers at toilet, but seldom
able to replace.
Dry through night if lifted.
Very active, restless and rebellious.
Throws violent tantrums and when thwarted or
unable to express urgent need and less easily
distracted.
Emotionally still very dependent upon adults.
Prolonged domestic make-believe play
(putting dolls to bed, washing clothes, driving
motor cars, etc.) but with frequent reference to
friendly adult.
Watches other children at play interestedly and
occasionally joins in for a few minutes, but little
notion of sharing playthings or adult’s attention.
3 YEARS
Walks alone upstairs with alternating feet and
downstairs with two feet to step.
Usually jumps from bottom step.
Climbs nursery apparatus with agility.
Can turn round obstacles and corners while running
and also while pushing and pulling large toys.
Rides tricycle and can turn wide corners on it.
Can walk on tiptoe.
Stands momentarily on one foot when shown.
Sits with feet crossed at ankles.
Picks up pins, threads, etc., with each eye covered
separately.
Builds tower of nine cubes, also (31/2 ) bridge of
three from model.
Can close fist and wiggle thumb in imitation.
R and L.
Copies circle (also V, H, T). Imitates cross.
Draws man with head and usually indication of
features or one other part.
Matches two or three primary colours
(usually red and yellow correct, but may confuse
blue and green).
Paints ‘pictures’ with large brush on easel.
Cuts with scissors.
(Recognises special miniature toys at 10 feet.
Performs single-letter vision test at 10 feet. Five
letters.)
Large intelligible vocabulary but speech still shows
many infantile phonetic substitutions. Gives full
name and sex, and (sometimes) age.
Uses plurals and pronouns.
Still talks to himself in long monologues mostly
concerned with the immediate present, including
make-believe activities.
Carries on simple conversations, and verbalises past
experiences.
Asks many questions beginning ‘What?’, ‘Where?’,
‘Who?’.
Listens eagerly to stories and demands favourites
over and over again.
Knows several nursery rhymes.
(7 toy test, 4 animals picture test. 1st or 2nd cube
test, 6 ‘high frequency’ word pictures.)
Eats with fork and spoon.
Washes hands, but needs supervision in drying.
Can pull pants and knickers down and up, but needs
help with buttons.
Dry through night.
General behaviour more amenable.
Affectionate and confiding.
Likes to help with adult’s activities in house and
garden.
Makes effort to keep his surroundings tidy.
Vividly realised make-believe play including
invented people and objects.
Enjoys floor play with bricks, boxes, toy trains and
cars, alone or with siblings.
Joins in play with other children in and outdoors.
Understands sharing playthings, sweets, etc.
Shows affection for younger siblings.
Shows some appreciation of past and present.
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children – continued
28
Posture and large
movements
Vision and fine
movements
Hearing and speech
Social behaviour
and play
4 YEARS
Turns sharp corners running, pushing and pulling.
Walks alone up and downstairs, one foot per step.
Climbs ladders and trees.
Can run on tiptoe.
Expert rider of tricycle.
Hops on one foot.
Stands on one foot 3–5 seconds.
Arranges or picks up objects from floor by bending
from waist with knees extended.
Picks up pins, thread, crumbs, etc., with each eye
covered separately.
Builds tower of 10 or more cubes and several
‘bridges’ of three on request.
Builds three steps with six cubes after
demonstration.
Imitates spreading of hand and bringing thumb into
opposition with each finger in turn, R and L.
Copies cross (also V, H, T and O).
Draws man with head, legs, features, trunk and
(often) arms.
Draws very simple house.
Matches and names four primary colours correctly.
(Single-letter vision test at 10 feet, seven letters:
also near chart to bottom).
Speech completely intelligible.
Shows only a few infantile substitutions usually
k/t/th/f/s and r/l/w/y groups).
Gives connected account of recent events and
experiences.
Gives name, sex, home address and (usually) age.
Eternally asking questions ‘Why?‘ ‘When?’, ‘How?’
and meanings of words.
Listens to and tells long stories sometimes confusing
fact and fantasy.
(7 toy test, 1st picture vocabulary test, 2nd cube
test.
6 ‘high frequency’ word pictures.)
Eats skilfully with spoon and fork.
Washes and dries hands. Brushes teeth.
Can undress and dress except for back buttons,
laces and ties.
General behaviour markedly self-willed.
Inclined to verbal impertinence when wishes
crossed but can be affectionate and compliant.
Strongly dramatic play and dressing-up favoured.
Constructive out-of-doors building with any large
material to hand.
Needs other children to play with and is alternately
co-operative and aggressive with them as with
adults.
Understands taking turns.
Shows concern for younger siblings and sympathy
for playmates in distress.
Appreciates past, present and future.
5 YEARS
Runs lightly on toes.
Active and skilful in climbing, sliding, swinging,
digging and various ‘stunts’.
Skips on alternative feet.
Dances to music.
Can stand on one foot 8–10 seconds.
Can hop 2–3 yards forwards on each foot
separately.
Grips strongly with either hand.
Picks up minute objects when each eye is covered
separately.
Builds three steps with six cubes from model.
Copies square and triangle (also letters; V, T, H, O,
X, L, A, C, U, Y).
Writes a few letters spontaneously.
Draws recognisable man with head, trunk, legs,
arms and features.
Draws simple house with door, windows, roof and
chimney.
Counts fingers on one hand with index finger of
other.
Names four primary colours and matches 10 or 12
colours.
(Full nine-letter vision chart at 20 feet and near
test
to bottom.)
Speech fluent and grammatical.
Articulation correct except for residual confusions of
s/f/th and r/l/w/y groups.
Loves stories and acts them out in detail later.
Gives full name, age and home address.
Gives age and (usually) birthday.
Defines concrete nouns by use.
Asks meaning of abstract words.
(12 ‘high frequency’ picture vocabulary or word
lists. 3rd cube test, 6 sentences.)
Uses knife and fork.
Washes and dries face and hands, but needs help
and supervision for rest.
Undresses and dresses alone.
General behaviour more sensible, controlled and
responsibly independent.
Domestic and dramatic play continued from day to
day.
Plans and builds constructively.
Floor games very complicated.
Chooses own friends.
Co-operative with companions and understands
need for rules and fair play.
Appreciates meaning of clock time in relation to
daily programme.
Tender and protective towards younger children
and pets. Comforts playmates in distress.
Chart illustrating the developmental progress of
infants and young children – continued
Reprinted from Reports on Public Health and Medical
SubjectsNo 102.
HMSO 1960, revised 1975. In Department of Health
(1988) Protecting Children.
A Guide for Social Workers undertaking a Comprehensive
Assessment, pp.88–93.
HMSO, London.
29
APPENDIX 2 Genogram
First child Second child Miscarriage or
abortion
Twins
Male Female Gender unknown
(e.g. pregnancy)
Death
Genogram symbols
Separation
Divorce
Enduring
relationship
(marriage or
cohabitation)
Transitory
relationship
Genogram symbols
A dotted line should be drawn around the people who
currently live in the same house.
Compiling a genogram
A genogram of family tree covering three or more
generations may be compiled using these
symbols. Other relatives in addition to parents and
children can be involved in compiling the
genogram. More than one session may be needed if the
exercise is used to discuss the family’s
history in detail and to enter significant dates and
other information. Working on a genogram
also provides the practitioner with an opportunity to
observe family relationships, for example
how open family members are with each other, how well
they respond to each other’s needs,
how flexible they are and how much they know about
each other.
30
APPENDIX 3 Ecomap
Educational
Psychologist
Club
organisation
School/
teacher Mother
Father
Hobbies
interests
Maternal
grandparents
Probation
Officer
Social
Worker
Schoolfriend
Sibling
Paternal
grandparents
Sibling
Pet(s) Extended
family
Neighbourhood
friend
Neighbourhood
friend
Adult
neighbour G.P.
Extended
family
CHILD
_ Place child or couple or family in central circle.
_ Identify important people or organisations and draw circles as needed
_ Draw lines between circles where connections exist
_ Use different types of lines to indicate the nature of the link or
relationship
——– = strong
– – – – = weak
• • • • • =
stressful
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36
Introduction
2.1 The population of England is comprised of many white minority ethnic
groups as well
as black minority ethnic groups and the differences in culture,
religion, language and
traditions for white minority ethnic groups have to be accounted for
just as they do for
black minority ethnic groups.
2.2 There are also a number of white minority ethnic groups who
experience oppression
on the basis of their ethnic, cultural or religious identity. In
assessing families these
experiences should be acknowledged and addressed.
2.3 This chapter focuses specifically on the needs of black children and
families. Black
here refers to children and families of Asian, African and Caribbean
origin including
children of dual heritage.
2.4 Whilst there are some similarities and parallels in the experiences
of black and white
minorities in Britain there is also a fundamental difference.
Institutional racism has
resulted in the significant impairment of the life opportunities of
black people in this
country (MacPherson, 1999).
2.5 Institutional racism operates within the field of child welfare.
Over the last thirty years
concern has been expressed about the number of black children in care
(Batta,
McCulloch and Smith, 1979; Adams, 1981; Rowe et al, 1989; Barn, 1993;
1997), the
lack of take up of family support services (Butt and Box, 1998), and the
lack of
potential for some black children (London Borough of Lambeth, 1997; The
Bridge
Child Care Consultancy Services, 1991).
2.6 Assessing the developmental needs of children is a complex process
which requires all
relevant aspects of a child’s life experience to be addressed. For black
children
assessments should address the impact that racism has on a particular
child and family
and ensure that the assessment process itself does not reinforce racism
through racial
or cultural stereotyping.
2.7 This chapter aims to assist child welfare professionals in
undertaking assessments of
black children in need and their families.
Assessing black children in need and their families
2.8 Within the current context of practice, professionals charged with
responsibilities for
promoting the welfare of children and their families often struggle with
how best to
37
2 Assessing
black children in need and their
families
address the needs of black children and their families. Although many
professionals
are aware that it is essential to take account of race and culture, and
in particular to be
culturally sensitive in their practice, they are often at a loss to
translate this into
practical terms. In assessing the developmental needs of black children
and their
families practitioners should address two key questions:
_ What
are the developmental needs of black children and their families, and in
what ways are these similar, and in what ways do they differ from the
developmental
needs of white children and families?
_ How
can these developmental needs be responded to in work with black children
and families?
2.9 Both black and white children require their parents or carers to
respond to their same
fundamental care needs. They all need basic care, warmth, stimulation,
guidance,
boundaries and stability. Any child who grows up without access to these
basic life
blocks (as a result of poor parental care) will suffer to a greater or
lesser extent.
2.10 The base lines for assessing parenting capacity and the child’s
developmental needs
should be the same irrespective of whether a black or a white child is
being assessed.
2.11 Later in this chapter, we look in detail at the similarities in and
differences between the
needs of black children and their families compared with white children
and their
families when using the Assessment Framework dimensions. Each of the
three
domains of the Assessment Framework will be addressed with respect to
each of its
dimensions.
2.12 Firstly, the context will be set for assessing black children and
families. This includes
their demographic and socio-economic situation and the changing nature
of culture,
as well as some key issues in professional practice.
Demography
2.13 According to the 1991 census the total black and minority ethnic
population of
Britain is over 3 million people (5.5%). Of this 2.9 million black and
minority ethnic
people live in England, 59.5 thousand live in Scotland and 40.5 thousand
live in
Wales.
2.14 There are considerable regional variations in the ethnic
composition of the population
with the largest composition being in London at 44.8% and West Midlands,
especially in Birmingham at 14% (Owen, 1992). Although there are
regional
variations in ethnic composition of the population, there are few areas
where black
people do not have a presence (Butt and Mirza, 1996).
2.15 One important feature of the black community is its relative youth
compared to the
white community. For instance adults aged over 45 constitute 39% of the
white
community compared to 18% of the black and minority ethnic community,
and
adults aged over 65 account for 16.9% of the white community and only
3.2% of the
black and minority ethnic communities (Jones, 1993).
2.16 More importantly children under 15 constitute 33% of black and
minority ethnic
communities compared to 19 % in the white communities. In certain parts
of the
38
country such as the London Boroughs of Newham and Tower Hamlets children
make
up the majority of the population. Other important features of the
population include:
_ A
very diverse black population with wide variations in class, countries of
origin,
socio-economic conditions, religion and languages;
_ An
increasing number of adult mixed relationships with 40% of African Caribbean
men and 20% of African Caribbean women in mixed relationships
(Berrington,
1996; Haskey, 1997). Importantly, 80% of black adults in mixed
relationships are
UK born and over half the children of mixed relationships are under the
age of 15
(Haskey, 1997).
Socio economic conditions
2.17 Evidence suggests that many of Britain’s black population are
experiencing economic
hardship. According to the Social Exclusion Unit (1998) ‘Ethnic minority
groups are
more likely than the rest of the population to live in poor areas, be
unemployed, have
low incomes, live in poor housing, have poor health and be the victims
of crime’.
2.18 The important point about the socio-economic conditions of black
communities
from an assessment perspective is, as Butt and Mirza (1998) observe
‘black
communities are at greater risk of experiencing some of the stress so
often associated
with people who need the services of social care agencies’.
The changing nature of culture for England’s black
population
2.19 The impact of social and economic forces, the effects of racism and
racial harassment,
changing family structures, access to suitable housing, the interaction
between
cultures, particularly in respect of children and young people and the
experience of
growing up in England are amongst a number of factors which have led to
the
changing nature of culture for black communities in this country.
However, this has
not led to an erosion of culture, as has sometimes been portrayed, but
to the
emergence of new cultural frameworks (Donald and Rattansi, 1992).
2.20 In some cases there has been a return to traditional values,
exhibited by an increased
interest in religious observance; in others, particularly among
teenagers, there has
been a mixing of cultures to create a street based culture strongly
influenced by black,
and in particular, black American and Caribbean culture.
2.21 Dosanjh and Ghuman (1998) describe the cross-fertilisation of
cultures as
‘enculturation’ meaning:
This dynamic of enculturation…can be summarised as comprising a
continuity
with some traditional norms alongside the adopting of some of the norms of
British
lifestyles.
2.22 Despite these significant changes, culture remains a central part
of the lives of black
communities, for it is the primary way in which black communities can
give meaning
and continuity to their own distinct identities, rites, traditions,
values, beliefs and
customs. For many black people, it is their culture which gives them the
strength to
survive in a hostile environment.
39
Key Issues in current child welfare practice
Numbers of black children in care
2.23 There are no current available figures on the number of black
children in care in
England. There are a number of small scale and local studies which have
indicated an
over-representation of black children in care particularly of dual
heritage and African
Caribbean origin. Although there are difficulties in drawing conclusions
from these
studies on a national basis, their findings cannot be ignored.
2.24 Local authorities should analyse their population of children
looked after to ascertain
the extent to which the number of black children who are looked after
reflects the local
profile of the black population. If there is an under or an over
representation of black
children, the local authority should take active steps to identify the
reasons for this
situation and address it.
Family Support
2.25 There is evidence also that black families are not gaining access
to family support
services. In a study of black families’ use of family centres Butt and
Box (1998) found
that 13 out of the 84 centres had no black and minority ethnic users and
25 centres
had black and minority ethnic users in equal proportion to their
presence in the
population. The authors conclude:
Our study suggests that black communities do not always have access to
family
centres and rarely access the full range of services that are available.
This is not
merely an outcome of black families choosing which service they access
(although
there is an element of that) but that the services only rarely get black
families
through the front door and some black users appeared to be unaware of
the range of
services that were available.
Inquiry Reports
2.26 At the same time, several Inquiry Reports into the deaths of black
children provide
evidence of a lack of intervention in situations where black children
were at obvious
risk of suffering significant harm from their parents. Two specific
reports, Whose
Child? The Report of the Panel of Inquiry into the Death of Tyra Henry
1987 (London
Borough of Lambeth, 1987) and Sukina; An evaluation report of the
circumstances
leading to her death (The Bridge Child Care
Consultancy Services, 1991) make a direct
link between racism and the practice of professionals when responding to
the children
and families concerned. Both reports identify that stereotyping of black
families and a
reluctance on the part of white professionals to intervene for fear of
being accused of
racism influenced practice.
2.27 It is clear that a more informed approach to the issue of race and
culture within professional
assessments is required. The remainder of this chapter will discuss ways
in
which professional practice could be developed to improve the assessment
of and
planning for black children and their families through an evidence-based,
systematic
and holistic approach to assessments with black families.
40
THEORIES AND PRACTICE INFORMING ASSESSMENT
Domain: Children’s Developmental Needs
Health
2.28 The following are some of the issues to be considered regarding
health and black
children and families:
_ Research
has shown the link between poverty and ill-health. Although this is as true
for the white community as it is for the black community there is
evidence to
suggest that black and minority ethnic people experience poorer health.
There are,
however, differences amongst the different ethnic groups. A study by
Nazroo
(1997) found that on the whole Pakistanis and Bangladeshis reported the
poorest
health during assessments of general health, with Caribbeans having the
next worst
state of health;
_ There
is a very strong correlation between the physical health of children of all
ages
and adverse social and economic conditions. This is particularly
apparent in the
infant mortality rate, which is directly affected by factors such as
economic status,
type of accommodation, access to basic amenities and access to
preventative and
supportive health care. A number of studies have shown a higher infant
mortality
rate amongst poorer black communities, particularly within families from
Bangladesh, Pakistan and the Caribbean (Smaje, 1999);
_ There
are some diseases which are more common amongst black and minority
ethnic people and some which are particular to black communities only.
In relation
to the latter sickle cell disorder is one such illness, affecting mainly
children from the
African Caribbean community but may occur in people from India and
Pakistan.
For those affected by it, the most difficult aspect of the disorder is
the pain
experienced during the crisis. Symptoms can include infections such as
meningitis
as well as strokes (NHS Executive, 1998). Professionals working with
black
children affected by sickle cell can get more information about the
disorder from
the Sickle Cell Society;
_ Particular
groups of children such as refugee children can suffer post-traumatic
stress syndrome. This can be directly attributed to the past experiences
of many of
the children. They may have witnessed death, violence and war prior to
their arrival
in the U.K.
_ Pointers for Practice
Assessments of black families should take account of
the specific health needs of
different black communities and address:
• The extent to
which the physical health of the child may be affected by adverse
social conditions;
• The extent to
which the child and family have direct access to appropriate advice
support and services in relation to their health care
needs;
41
• Whether the
child or family members may be likely to suffer from sickle cell disorder;
• Whether past
life experiences or trauma has had any affect on the physical health of
the child.
Education
2.29 From a psychological perspective, there is no difference in the
cognitive or educational
capacity or development of black children as compared to white. However,
in social
terms, there is no aspect of child development in which racism has had a
greater
impact in this country than that of educational and cognitive
development.
2.30 Today, whilst there is an acknowledgement that there is no
biological or genetic
difference between black children’s intelligence or educational ability
as compared to
white children, race continues to make a difference in the educational
experience and
achievements of black children. There is a great deal of evidence to
suggest that black
pupils in England under-achieve educationally and are more likely to be
excluded
from school than their white counterparts:
_ The
data on permanent school exclusions for 1996/97 show that African Caribbean
pupils are more than four times as likely to face permanent exclusions
compared to
white pupils. Kundnani (1998) summaries evidence which suggests the
‘profile of
African Caribbean children who are excluded differs from that of
excluded children
generally; they are usually higher than average ability, exhibit less
evidence of deepseated
trauma and are less likely to have shown disruptive behaviour from early
in
their school career’. Kundnani (1998) suggests that there is a problem
‘between
teachers and black children and that teachers’ perceptions of black
children (and
vice versa) do, somehow play a crucial role’;
_ The
over-representation of black children excluded from school has also been
identified as an important issue by the Social Exclusion Unit;
_ The
most recent data on achievements in school show that African Caribbean,
Pakistani and Bangladeshi children continue to under-achieve;
_ Black
parents consistently express concern about being undermined by the school
system.
_ Pointers for Practice
Assessment of black children’s educational and
cognitive development should take
account of racism as it may manifest itself within the
educational system and address:
_ Whether the child has had the opportunity to realise their educational
potential
without the limitations imposed upon them by negative
stereotyping;
_ For an excluded child, the extent to which the exclusion is appropriate
in relation to
the child’s behaviour;
_ The extent to which the child’s parents are consulted about and involved
in the
child’s education.
42
Identity and Emotional and Behavioural Development
2.31 Identity is important for all children: there are close links
between the development of
a child’s identity and their emotional and behavioural development.
Children who
have emotional and behavioural difficulties often have a poor self-image
and low selfesteem.
2.32 There is still considerable misunderstanding about the nature of
identity and its
central importance to all children. One of the reasons for this, is that
identity is most
often spoken about in relation to black children in situations where the
child is
perceived to be exhibiting identity problems. In fact, many children
about whom
there are professional concerns have problems with their identity,
self-esteem and selfworth.
These issues have been shown to be particularly significant for many
children
in the care system, both black and white. In their recent study of the
effectiveness of
care in childrens homes, Sinclair and Gibbs (1998) found that over 70%
of children
and young people had low self-esteem.
The nature of Identity
2.33 Identity is difficult to define, yet it is central to every
person’s sense of their own
individuality and place in society. Definitions range from spiritual or
religious,
through to psychodynamic, behavioural, social and structural
interpretations. We will
draw on the literature to propose a model of understanding identity in
relation to
black children and their families which is inclusive of all the elements
of which it is
comprised.
2.34 Within most societies, identity fulfils two useful functions. It
allows individuals to
understand and conceptualise themselves as distinct from others and it
allows
individuals to form group identities with other individuals who have
similar characteristics
to their own.
Group identification
2.35 Group identification allows individuals to categorise each other in
social interactions.
Race, gender, class, disability, age, sexual identity, are all features
of group identity
which have an outcome for group members in terms of institutional
discrimination
and disadvantage. For black children and their families, being black in
a white society
is not just about personal or group identity, it is about a lived
experience of discrimination
on the grounds of colour and physical characteristics.
2.36 For children and young people who are both black and disabled, the
experience of
discrimination on the basis of their disability is compounded by the
effects of racism.
Despite this, many black and disabled children find that only one aspect
of their
experience is addressed at any one time.
Individual and personal identity
2.37 Individual identity is the internal model which allows each person
to have a
perception of themselves as an individual and social being. We are all
members of
numerous social groupings, but we are also distinct in our own
individuality from any
other member of a given group to which we belong, despite some areas of
commonality (See Erikson, 1968).
43
2.38 There is a complex interaction which takes place between the
elements of one’s
personality to form an individual identity. Although each child is born
with a specific
genetic blueprint, inherited from their parents, each is unique. This is
because each
individual interaction between a child, his or her family,
relationships, social context
and environment, will be processed into an individual experience. These
sets of
individual experiences contribute towards the development of a whole
personality.
2.39 Identity, therefore, has to be defined and assessed in terms of a
holistic model of
children’s development which incorporates other facets of his or her
developmental
needs. The diagram below sets out how these key elements interact to
form a child’s
identity (Figure 4).
2.40 From the time a child is born, he or she begins to develop an
individual identity. First
interactions with their carers, siblings and social contacts become part
of the child’s
internal model of identity. These experiences also locate the child
within a social world
in which group identities begin to influence identity formation.
2.41 For black children and their families, racism affects both individual
and group
identities. Although there is no biological or genetic basis for the
concept of a racial
group, race has a social significance in that it affects the way in
which a child him or
herself and is perceived by others. A black child growing up within a
predominantly
white society will receive negative messages about being black, and
needs a positive
internal model of black identity to counteract negative stereotypes. A
black child who
is also disabled will be affected by their own and others perception of
both their
disability and their race, and will need to be given the opportunity to
develop a
positive sense of themselves which helps them to counteract negative
messages about
both.
The Development of a racial identity
2.42 Racial identity is relevant to all children whether black or white.
Being white is a racial
identity, just as being black is one. However, because being white in
England is often
perceived as normative, being black becomes defined in terms of its
difference to white
norms. In fact, all children go through a developmental process of
acquiring a racial
identity, although many white adults and children along with a
percentage of black
adults and children are not aware they are doing so. Black children do
not universally
acquire a negative sense of self despite the effects of racism (Milner,
1983; Owusu-
Bempah and Howitt, 1999).
2.43 The preconditions for identity formation for a secure black child
growing up in a
loving environment with racially aware black carers will be very
different to the
preconditions for a black child who has an insecure base, a poor
caregiving
environment and unaware or even hostile black or white carers.
2.44 For black children who do not have a positive sense of their racial
identity, Cross
(1971) provides one model for understanding and assessing racial
identity. He
explains the acquisition of their racial identity in terms of a five
stage process:
_ Pre-encounter
stage
This is before a child’s has encountered racism, where their world view
is influenced
by a white perspective.
44
45
Figure 4 A model of identity
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Health
Physical development
Physical appearance
GROUP IDENTITY
Ethnicity
Culture Religion Language
Class
Gender Sexual identity
Disabled Non-disabled
——————————————
INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY
Personal self-definition
EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Emotional maturity
Attachments
Relationships
SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Social awareness
Social presentation
Social skills
Social responsibility
SELF-ESTEEM
Pride
Self-concept
Self-confidence
BEHAVIOURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Behaviour patterns
Positive behaviour
Negative behaviour
EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Intellectual
Cognitive
Educational attainment
FAMILY AND SOCIAL
COMMUNITY
AND
ENVIRONMENT
FAMILY AND SOCIAL
FAMILY AND
SOCIAL
RELATIONSHIPS
_ Encounter
stage
This coincides with the child’s first real encounter with racism. The
significance of
this experience forces the child to reconsider their previous world view
and to
reinterpret their experiences.
_ Immersion-emersion
stage
This is where the child seeks to reject all previous aspects of their
identity, and to
become immersed in their blackness. However, this is only a superficial
and reactive
concept of black identity, which is more connected with the semblance of
blackness, than with an integrated working model of a black identity.
Individuals at
this stage are often, wrongly perceived to have a positive black
identity.
_ Internalisation
stage
This is a move towards a more positive and integrated model of identity,
in which an
internal working model of black identity begins to take shape.
_ Internalisation-commitment
stage
This is where the internal model links to aspects of a group identity, in
that the child
commits themselves to active participation in and commitment to the
black
community.
2.45 Cross’ model also helps provide some insight into the links between
personal racial
identity and racial group identification. It helps us to understand the
connections
between personal racial identity, racial group identification and
emotional and
behavioural development. For instance a black person who group
identifies as black,
but is unable to internalise that identification will show in the way
they behave the
disconnections between their external and internal worlds. Similarly, a
black child
who has an integrated sense of their racial identity will exhibit this
in their interactions
and relationships with others.
2.46 For black children with one white parent (children of dual
heritage) the connections
between personal self-definition and group identification can hold
particular significance.
Although a number of recent studies have focused on the identity of
children
of dual heritage (Banks, 1992; Tizard and Phoenix, 1994; Katz, 1996), it
should be
stressed that these children should not be pathologised as having
identity problems or
identity conflicts. Many children of dual heritage have a very positive
and integrated
racial identity.
2.47 However, for some children of dual heritage, the dynamics of racial
group identification
are very complex. It is often stated that such children “want to be
white” or are
“denying their blackness”. This is an over-simplification of their
position.
2.48 For some of these children, particularly those who live with their
white parent and
have little or no contact with their black parent or the black parent’s
family, black selfdefinition
means more than a journey towards self-recognition. For them there are
emotional consequences to black racial group identification. If they
perceive their
white parent as caring and supportive, they may not wish to hurt a loved
person by
rejecting the white racial identity of their main carer, or white people
in their main
caregiving environment.
2.49 For these children it is important to understand the context in
which the process of
identity development is taking place. Working with these children and
their white
46
carers to strengthen the child’s internal working model of racial
identity is crucial to
helping them feel positive about their racial identity and to deal with
the racism which
they will inevitably experience.
2.50 Whilst Cross’ model was developed to help understand black racial
identity, it is also
applicable to the assessment of white racial identity. Just as the
acquisition of an
integrated sense of self in relation to race is a process for black
people, so it is for white
people. White children’s attitudes to race reflect this. In their study
of mainly white
primary schools Troyna and Hatcher (1992) found that white children
exhibited
inconsistent attitudes towards race, ranging from overtly racist
frameworks of
interpretation through to well developed notions of race equality.
2.51 An interesting aspect of their research findings is the
inconsistency between expressed
values and behaviour:
…a number of combinations of attitudes is possible, ranging from
children who
hold overtly racist beliefs but do not express them in behaviour, to
children who
hold racially egalitarian beliefs but use racist name calling in certain
situations.
2.52 This demonstrates the need for dialogue about race and racism with
white children
and young people, as a way of exploring and integrating their notions of
race. An
awareness of the impact of racism and an understanding of their white
cultural
heritage are also important parts of positive identity
development for white children
in a multi-racial and multi-cultural society.
Ethnicity
2.53 Whilst race is defined by heritage, colour, physical appearance,
and physical characteristics,
ethnicity is defined by geographic, political, historical, religious and
cultural
factors. Cashmore (1984) describes an ethnic group as:
a group possessing some degree of coherence and solidarity composed of
people
who are, at least latently aware of having common origins and interests.
2.54 There are white ethnic groups as well as black ethnic groups.
Minority status is related
simply to being in the minority within a given population. Both black
and white
people continue to be oppressed and discriminated against on the basis
of their
ethnicity.
2.55 As an aspect of individual and group identity, ethnicity is
significant in that it gives
individuals a sense of community, heritage and belonging. Ethnicity,
like race, cannot
be acquired through lifestyle or association. As such, ethnicity is an
important aspect
of identity in both individual and group terms.
2.56 For children, the acquisition of an ethnic identity is an important
process which helps
them to connect their personal and family history to that of a community
or social
grouping. As such it gives them a sense of heritage.
Cultural, religious and linguistic identity
2.57 Culture, religion and language are three distinct parts of identity
which interconnect
with racial and ethnic identity. However, they are distinct from both in
that they can
be acquired through the process of socialisation. A child can be born
into a family
47
from one cultural background, speak one language and be brought up with
a
particular set of religious beliefs. With a change of lifestyle, a new
parental
partnership, or a geographical move some or all of these aspects of the
child’s life may
change, whilst their racial and ethnic identity remain the same.
2.58 However, culture, religion and language are very important aspects
of group and
individual identity. Whilst racial identity forms one important aspect
of identity,
individuals from the same racial group may have differences in terms of
their cultural
background, religious observance and linguistic identity.
Culture
2.59 Much has been written about the concept of culture. We will not
revisit old ground,
but will summarise the following key points which are crucial to an
understanding of
the nature of culture and acquiring a cultural identity.
_ Both
black and white people have cultural identities;
_ Culture
is dynamic, not monolithic;
_ Culture
is acquired through live experiences;
_ Culture
is not static, but changes and develops over time;
_ There
are differences between families who have the same cultural background;
_ Views
of black cultures are influenced by cultural and racial stereotyping.
The acquisition of cultural identity
2.60 Just as for racial identity, cultural identity functions at both a
group and an individual
level. It is acquired from live experiences. From birth, the child’s
senses are attuned to
the specifics of their environment:
Individuation begins with the environment and evolves largely through
sensory
and perceptual experiences (Prohansky and Gottlieb, 1989).
2.61 The particular music young children hear, the language spoken or
type of regional
accent or dialect, the colours of clothing and fabrics seen, distinct
household and
cooking smells all provide a particular and distinct environment which
contributes
towards the formation of their cultural identity.
2.62 As a child grows older, interacts more with their family, community
and the world at
large, these interactions become more complex and multi-faceted. At the
same time as
developing capabilities for self-reflection and self-definition, the
child acquires an
individual cultural identity which has been shaped both by the
particular context in
which it has been developed and the child’s own contribution to the
process.
2.63 During this developmental process, the child will act and react in
relation to a host of
cultural information. Some of this will be specific to their own family
traditions, some
will be shared with individuals and families who come from a similar
cultural
background to the child. Through these interactions the child learns
about individual
family values and norms as well as about those norms and values which
may be shared
as group values.
48
2.64 For black disabled children there may also be other cultural
connections which are
important to them in addition to their family connections. For example,
a black child
who is deaf will also have experiences of deaf culture, where they may
share commonalities
with children and young people who have different ethnicities and family
backgrounds to themselves. Whilst these commonalities will influence
aspects of
group-identification with other deaf children and young people, family
culture will
also be significant in defining identity. In this way, the acquisition
of cultural identity
can only be understood by taking account of the whole experience of each
child or
young person.
2.65 For some children, who do not grow up in an environment where they
experience
their own culture, perhaps because of being in substitute care, or
because they do not
have contact with any black family members, the acquisition of cultural
identity is a
more difficult process. For some of these children the only access to
such experiences is
through books or television programmes.
2.66 These sources of information can provide the child with information
about cultural
practices and traditions, but they cannot provide the child with a live
and interactive
experience in which the child has the opportunity to participate in and
even shape
events. Although useful if used appropriately, such information can also
reinforce
stereotypical and monolithic notions of culture because of its
essentially static nature.
Religion
2.67 Section 22(5)(c) of the Children Act 1989, requires local
authorities to:
give due consideration to… the child’s religious persuasion…
2.68 There is some evidence to suggest that information about the
child’s or family’s
religion is not always recorded in case files. Unpublished research
undertaken by the
authors in a city and county authority indicate that religion was not
routinely
recorded for black children.
2.69 Religion or spirituality is an issue for all families whether white
or black. A family who
do not practise a religion, or who are agnostic or atheists, may still
have particular
views about the spiritual upbringing and welfare of their children. For
families where
religion plays an important role in their lives, the significance of
their religion will also
be a vital part of their cultural traditions and beliefs (see CCETSW
(1996) for a
helpful training pack on Spirituality and Religion).
2.70 In research undertaken by Carl Hylton for the Moyenda Project in
1997, an issue that
emerged strongly was the importance of spirituality as a survival
strategy for black
families living in England. The report says:
It is our intention to register strongly the concept of spirituality
that came from all
the respondents interviewed. Here, we are not particularly referring to
religious
adherence that forms a major aspect of the lives of many visual minority
people.
Spirituality as used here refers to wider feelings that include
religious adherence, but
is also concerned with a particular way of life encompassing strength,
perseverance,
forgiveness and the ability to build and concentrate on self-knowledge
without
posing the destruction of other ethnic groups.
49
Language
2.71 The acquisition of language is central to any child’s development.
It is also a feature of
the child’s individual and group identity. The particular language,
dialect or accent
which the child learns and speaks will help them to define themselves,
and others to
define the child in relation to themselves.
2.72 For children and adults, language represents more than the ability
to communicate. It
also helps a child to access and be accessed by groups of people who
share the same
language, and to reinforce the child’s sense of their own cultural group
identity.
2.73 Dosanjh and Ghuman (1998) in their Study of Child-rearing
Practices of Two
Generations of Punjabis found that the mothers
were keen to maintain religious rites
and customs:
Likewise, they are eager to teach their children their mother tongue,
despite the lack
of support from infant and primary schools.
2.74 It is vital that children have the opportunity to learn and
maintain family languages.
Although actual figures are not available, many children placed in long
term substitute
care have little or no opportunity to practise and develop their
language skills apart
from speaking English. For these children there can be no more poignant
reminder of
the loss of opportunity than the inability to communicate with other
members of their
own family and community in their own language.
2.75 This opportunity is particularly important for disabled children
whose acquisition of
language may be affected by their impairment.
Social Presentation and Selfcare Skills
2.76 A child’s social presentation and selfcare skills will reflect
their own personal identity,
their group affiliations and their upbringing and environment.
2.77 One of the indicators that a black child has an integrated sense of
self as a black person
is that they can define themselves in terms of their racial and cultural
identity, as well
as being self-confident about their physical appearance and
characteristics.
2.78 However, some children do not grow up with any access to other
black people. These
children do not have the opportunity to naturally gain that support,
strength and
guidance in their everyday contact with black people.
2.79 For some black children who live with a black and a white parent
their home is a very
difficult environment in which to acquire a positive racial and cultural
identity,
because they experience racism from within their home or family. Some of
these
children internalise these negative feelings, and have very low
self-esteem, whilst
others may externalise their negative experiences into various forms of
anti-social
behaviour.
50
51
_ Pointers for Practice
Identity allows individuals to understand and
conceptualise themselves as distinct from
others and allows individuals to form group identities
with other individuals who have
similar characteristics to their own. Race, culture,
religion and language are central to
group and individual identity. Assessments should to
address identity holistically by
considering:
• Any
difficulties which the child may be having in acquiring a positive racial
identity,
and what help the child requires to enable them do so;
• The child’s
awareness of their own ethnicity and personal, family and community
history. Where this is not available, what steps can
be taken to obtain such
information;
• The child’s
access to a lived experience of their culture, for example, attendance at a
wedding, or participation in celebrations which
include music, food and traditional
rituals will give a child a far more profound and
effective sense of their cultural
identity than any amount of visual or written
material;
• The religious
and spiritual needs of black children and their families – this will require
professionals to discuss the family’s belief systems
religion, rites and traditions and
record them routinely;
• The identity of
disabled black children holistically and not as a hierarchy of need, in
that being black gives the child a specific
perspective on their disability;
• The extent to
which the child has the opportunity to learn about and maintain family
languages. Where the child has not had this
opportunity, what steps can be taken to
address this deficiency;
• The extent to
which a black disabled child has the opportunity to learn their first
language. As some disabled children rely upon other
forms of communication apart
from the written or spoken word, it is vital that
communication with their families is
facilitated in a way that accounts for their own modes
of communication as well as
the family’s first language. For example, the basis of
British Sign Language is English.
Translating BSL into English will facilitate the
understanding of English speakers, but
for those who speak other languages, further
translation is required. Although the
provision of interpreters is seen sometimes as a
logistical nightmare for social welfare
agencies, the ability to communicate and to be
understood has to be promoted as a
basic human right, without which any attempt at
assessment would be impossible.
Family and Social Relationships
2.80 Family and social relationships are central to all children’s
lives, whether they are black
or white. For both white and black children their early experiences of
parenting and
social relationships can construct a blueprint for later social
interactions.
2.81 When assessing parenting capacity and social relationships,
practitioners often raise
questions about the extent to which eurocentric models of child
development are
relevant to black families. Some think that using eurocentric theories
such as
attachment is not appropriate to the assessment of black families.
2.82 Attachments are central to all human societies, and there are no
differences between
black and white families in terms of the need for adults and children to
form strong
and positive relationships.
2.83 Children in all communities depend upon the specific care and
attention of at least
one significant adult who is able and willing to respond to the child’s
needs for both
physical and emotional care. Children are vulnerable, particularly in
their early years,
and attachment to a significant adult fulfils a basic function to ensure
their survival
and wellbeing.
2.84 In the western world these parent-child relationships are explained
by the theory of
attachment, but in the popular culture of all societies the central
importance of loving
and protective relationships is represented in stories, folklore, poetry
and music.
2.85 There is no difference in the preconditions for the formation of
good attachments
between black and white families. In both cases, attachments develop out
of a
relationship which is worked at by both baby and adult over a time. This
relationship
requires the participation of both parties, in that secure attachments
are
formed out of reciprocal relationships, in which there is a high degree
of communication,
matched responsiveness and consistency (Klaus and Kennel, 1976; Bowlby,
1988).
2.86 The third area of similarity is the importance of attachment to the
internal working
model which forms the basis for developing children’s self-esteem,
self-confidence and
self-perception, as well as acting as a model for future social
relationships and
interactions (Bowlby, 1973). The theory is that through the care,
responsiveness and
affection that children receive from their attachment figures, they
learn to see
themselves as valued people who have a right to care and affection and
who have selfworth.
Children who grow up in environments where adult carers are not
responsive
to their needs, and are not caring or affectionate do not learn to see
themselves as
worthy of such love, and adapt their behaviour accordingly.
2.87 The basic concepts on which attachment theory is based are clearly
applicable to all
human relationships, and are important to our understanding of the human
condition. However, there are aspects of attachment theory that require
more
discussion in relation to their applicability to black families.
2.88 The first of these is in relation to the identity of attachment
figures. Much of the
literature on attachment emphasises the importance of either the mother
(Bowlby,
1969) and/or parents (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964; Rutter, 1972) as the
main
attachment figure for a child. It is here that there may be differences
for some black
families. Differences to family structures, communities and networks
will play an
important role in determining who the child will form key attachments
with.
2.89 For many black families, family structures and interactions between
family members
are very different in nature and character to those of white nuclear
families. Within
this context a child may have strong attachments with a number of family
members
and adults who are not blood relatives of the family. Thomas (1995)
refers to this as
‘multiple attachments’. He says:
Friends and colleagues have talked about their experiences of being
raised in
52
Bangladesh, Northern India and the Caribbean. They have talked about
different
cultural experiences of attachment. These have been varied, from having
multiple
mothering by grandmothers, mothers, aunts…This behaviour is thought to
enable
the small child to establish strong bonds with the extended family or
clan which will
be important for his or her future socialisation or welfare.
2.90 For many black families living in England, wider family networks
and connections are
important not just to the individual family, but to the survival of the
whole
community.
2.91 Social and economic circumstances have led to long term adult-child
separations as a
result of migration. Arnold (1975) highlighted particular issues of loss
and separation
for children who were parted from their parents as a result of migration
to England,
and the subsequent effects on attachments and relationships when family
members
were reunited having had little or no contact during the intervening
years.
The earlier the separation between mother and child in the Caribbean,
the more
problematic it became to re-establish bonds in the UK.
2.92 The impact of separation and loss is particularly acute for
unaccompanied children
and young people who are seeking asylum in this country. For these
children, the
losses, separations and traumas which they have experienced need to be
understood
within the context of attachments, separations and losses.
These children have inevitably experienced significant disruption to
their normal
lives. All, whatever, their social background, will have suffered the
trauma of
losing familiar social landmarks, status and expectations (Social
Services
Inspectorate et al, 1995).
2.93 In such circumstances the existence of any family networks and
connections are vital
to the continued survival of individuals and communities. Owusu-Bempah
and
Howitt (1997) highlight the importance these connections have for
children, citing
the theory of socio-genealogical connectedness as a useful adjunct to
attachment
theory in understanding the nature of children’s individual and group
identities.
The notion of socio-genealogical connectedness refers to the extent to
which
children identify with their natural parents’ biological and social
background. A
basic tenet of this theory is that the degree to which children identify
with their
natural parent’s backgrounds is dependent upon the amount and quality of
information that they possess about their parents.
2.94 This echoes an earlier premise in this chapter, namely that
children require positive
information about their personal history and heritage in order to
develop a sense of
personal and group identity. For many black people, this connectedness
also extends
beyond individual families and into communities. Owusu-Bempah and Howitt
(1997) explain:
In a small-scale collective community where linkage may be with the
whole group
rather than to one’s individual family, the information needed to
achieve a sense of
connectedness is readily available throughout the community, the child’s
sense of
continuity is provided by the whole community rather than the individual
parent of
family.
53
_ Pointers for Practice
Information about family history and cultural heritage
are vital not only to the child’s
sense of personal identity and wellbeing, but also to
their sense of group identification.
In assessing the child’s relationships it is important
to consider:
• The child’s
relationships within the context of their wider social networks and
connections;
• The extent of
quality and quantity of information the child has about their own roots
and heritage, and how deficiencies in this information
can be addressed;
• The specific
family structure in which the child lives, and the patterns of attachment
which operate within this particular black family
including any attachment figures
who may not be blood relatives;
• The impact of
migration, separation and trauma on the child and wider family
network.
Domain: Parenting Capacity
Basic Care
2.95 As stated earlier in this chapter, there are no differences in the
basic care needs of black
children compared to white children. For all children, their healthy
development
requires that basic care needs are responded to appropriately by the
child’s main
caregivers.
Ensuring Safety
2.96 Both black and white children have the same right and the same need
to be protected
from abuse, whether by acts of commission or omission. However, evidence
cited at
the beginning of this chapter, indicates that race plays a part in the
protection of black
children.
2.97 Whilst research studies have indicated that there is an
over-representation of black
children within the care system (see paragraph 2.23), there is also
evidence that some
black children are not being protected out of a fear on the part of
white workers of
being accused of racist practice.
2.98 Whose Child? The Report of the Panel of Inquiry into the death
of Tyra Henry 1987
(London Borough of Lambeth, 1987), a black child, suggested that the
lack of support
provided by the Social Services Department to help the child’s
grandmother care for
her was influenced by gender based racial stereotyping. An
over-idealised view of
African-Caribbean women was cited as influencing social work practice
with the
family. As a result of this lack of support, Tyra returned home to her
parents where she
was subsequently killed by her step-father.
There is a “positive”, but nevertheless false stereotype in white
British society of the
Afro-Caribbean mother figure as endlessly resourceful … essentially
unsinkable. It
may have been an unarticulated and unconscious sense that a woman like
Beatrice
54
Henry would find a way to cope no matter what, that underlay the neglect
of social
services to make adequate provision for her taking responsibility for
Tyra (London
Borough of Lambeth, 1987).
2.99 In the case of Sukina Hammond, a child of mixed parentage who was
killed by her
father, the report of the circumstances leading to her death (The Bridge
Child Care
Consultancy, 1991) states:
We know that agencies that are moving towards trying to be more
sensitive and
understanding to the racial and cultural needs of their client group, do
risk failing to
recognise the particular needs of an individual child. In addition,
white professionals
who have undergone anti-racist training can sometimes over-compensate
out of fear of being accused of racism.
2.100 Studies (see Finkelhor, 1986; Jones and McCurdy, 1992) have shown
little difference
in rates of physical abuse, sexual abuse and neglect across different
ethnic and racial
groups. Despite this, there is evidence of differences in referral rates
in relation to
specific types of abuse for particular black ethnic groups.
2.101 In their study, Operating the child protection system, Gibbons,
Conroy and Bell (1995)
state that Black and Asian families were over-represented among
referrals for physical
injury (58% versus 42%) and under-represented referrals for sexual abuse
(20% versus
31%) compared to white families. They conclude that:
This illustrates cultural differences in child rearing and the
difficulty of deciding
what forms of physical punishment are “acceptable” in Britain.
2.102 Thoburn et al (1995) echo this concern in their research on family
involvement in the
child protection process:
Disagreements about the appropriateness of physical punishment features
in a
disproportionate number of cases involving black families.
2.103 Farmer and Owen (1995) also refer to this dilemma in Private
Risks and Public
Remedies:
In spite of (or perhaps because of ) considerable sensitivity in their
perceptions, a
few workers were somewhat overwhelmed by the number of factors which
appeared
to be relevant in minority ethnic cases and they had difficulty in combining
them,
especially if culture, race and ethnicity were seen not as the total
context for
intervention but to be added at the end of a lengthening list.
2.104 It is evident that race features at every stage of intervention,
from the point of referral
onwards. An example of this is the differential referral rate for black
families in relation
to physical injury and sexual abuse in Gibbons, Conroy and Bell’s study.
The referral
rate is not illustrative of the actual incidence of abuse within a given
community, but
it is indicative of which cases are referred to statutory agencies. It
is erroneous to
assume that there is less sexual abuse within the black community, as
this perpetuates
myths which results in sexual abuse being unrecognised and undetected within
black
communities.
2.105 It is equally inaccurate to assume that the referral rates for
physical injury of children
are based on different levels of physical chastisement within black
communities, and it
perpetuates another myth that physical abuse is cultural within black
communities.
55
2.106 Whilst physical injury and physical punishment are often discussed
as
interchangeable terms there is a distinction between physically injuring
a child and
using forms of physical disciplines – such as smacking.
2.107 Within current debates on parenting the acceptability of smacking
is a hotly debated
topic. There are very different views held by parents about this both
within and across
cultural boundaries. Just as many black families may strongly support
the use of
smacking as a form of discipline so do many white families. Equally
there are black as
well as white families who are strongly opposed to smacking children.
2.108 Physical injury to children occurs in black families just as it
does within white families,
but it is not more or less a part of black culture than of white
culture. Physical abuse is
unacceptable whatever the context. If physical abuse was a part of black
culture then
all black children would be unsafe within black communities.
2.109 When a child is abused in a family, it is important to establish
the circumstances
in which the abuse took place, as a means of targeting areas for
intervention to
change patterns of behaviour. If it is assumed that the abuse occurs as
a result of
cultural patterns of behaviour, then the focus for intervention may be
the culture
itself.
2.110 Culture does not explain abuse. A parent who has injured a child
may say “It is my
culture to punish my child in this way”. However, this does not explain
why many
other parents from the same culture do not punish their child using this
level of
physical chastisement, and some parents from the same culture use no
physical
punishment at all.
2.111 Culture can explain the context in which abuse takes place, it can
explain the values,
beliefs or attitudes of a parent at the time when an abusive incident
took place, but it
cannot provide an explanation for the parent’s action in response to
those values,
beliefs or attitudes.
_ Pointers for Practice
Issues of race and culture cannot simply be added to a
list for separate consideration
during an assessment. They are integral to the
assessment process. In undertaking
assessments of black families professionals should be
mindful that:
• From referral
through to core assessment, intervention and planning, race and
culture have to be addressed using the Assessment
Framework;
• Culture can
explain the context in which an abusive incident took place, but not the
behaviour or action of an individual parent. For
example, a parent who injures their
child with a belt may say that this form of punishment
is “cultural”. Their cultural
context may explain the parents anger within the
expectations that he or she has of
the child, but will not explain why the parent acted
upon this anger by using a belt to
hit the child. Other parents from the same culture in
a similar context may choose to
punish the child without recourse to any physical
punishment at all;
• Racial and
cultural stereotyping of black families can led to inappropriate
interventions in families as well as a failure to
protect black children from abuse.
56
Racial abuse and harassment
2.112 An area of abuse of black children, not generally addressed by the
social work
profession, is racial abuse and harassment. According to Dutt and
Phillips (1996):
Racial abuse and harassment on the whole received a ‘no-reaction’
response from
social work professionals. Although many social services departments
have
developed policies on racial attacks and harassment, there is little
evidence to
suggest that the issue of racial abuse is a priority for departments or
that practice is
beginning to take into account the reality of racial abuse.
2.113 A review of research on racism and racial abuse undertaken by the
NSPCC (Barter,
1999) highlighted a dearth of research on racial abuse of children and
young people. It
identified some important issues in this area namely:
_ Racism
and racial bullying are commonplace in the lives of minority ethnic
children and young people, and in the lives of white children who will
frequently
witness racial bullying as bystanders;
_ Studies
focusing on racial bullying show that, compared to overall bullying figures,
children from ethnic minorities are more likely to experience bullying
than their
white counterparts;
_ The
most common expression of racism is through racist name-calling, which
research shows is often viewed by adults as trivial, although studies
indicate that its
impact on children can be profound;
_ Although
research evidence is limited, that available suggests racial bullying
frequently involves the use of violence.
2.114 Although this review highlights the lack of material on the racial
abuse and its impact
on black disabled children, it quotes some studies specifically looking
at racial abuse
and black disabled people. One example is a small study undertaken by
Begum (1992)
on Asian disabled people and their carers. Her study shows that ‘overall
about half of the
total sample reported that they had experienced racial harassment. Half
of the disabled
people had experienced some form of verbal abuse, and 14% reported
racial violence’.
2.115 Whatever form racial abuse takes, the impact of the abuse is
devastating for the
child/young person, as well as for their family. The Childline study
(1996) Children
and Racism highlights some of the impact of racial
abuse on children. The study states
that ‘racist bullying causes real suffering, effects children’s
self-esteem and confidence
and renders some children and young people so despondent that they feel
suicidal and
attempt suicide’. The report concludes ‘youngsters cannot deal with
bullying on their
own, they need adult help’.
2.116 Racial abuse may be a feature of the lives of black children of
dual heritage living in
predominantly white families. In their study of race and racism in the
lives of young
people of mixed heritage, Tizzard and Phoenix (1994) found that half the
young
people in the sample ‘perceived either a parent or a sibling as being to
some degree
racially prejudiced’.
2.117 The Childline study also highlighted racism experienced by
children in their own
families. Comments from children calling Childline include:
57
Mum has left because dad was hitting her. Now he’s hitting me and
calling me
‘half-breed’ and ‘nigger’ because my mum is black.
I am black and my mum is white…she has a new boyfriend who is completely
racist…
He is not nice to me. When we are alone…He says things like “you need a
bath”. This
12 year old girl felt she could not tell her mother because she wouldn’t
believe her.
2.118 The Childline report concludes that ‘perhaps the most unhappy
children we hear
from are those where racism is part of their family life. They are being
excluded or
abused by the people they love’.
_ Pointers for Practice
Racial abuse damages children both physically and
emotionally and as such warrants
professional intervention to address the effects of
this form of abuse whether it comes
from within or outside the family. Assessments should
consider:
• Whether racial
abuse, racial bullying or racial violence impacts on the child or on the
wider family;
• The extent of
support, advice and intervention offered to the family, or the family
require, and how this can be provided.
Emotional Warmth
2.119 For all children emotional warmth is an essential prerequisite for
healthy emotional
development. But how is emotional warmth demonstrated, and to what
extent do
cultural variations exist in relation to demonstrating it?
2.120 Much of the literature on emotional abuse and neglect emphasises
the absence of
emotional warmth as one indicator of emotional abuse. Hoghhughi and
Speight
(1998) emphasise the importance of love, care and commitment to healthy
emotional
development:
Children need to feel they are loved consistently and unconditionally.
2.121 In Beyond Blame, Child Abuse Tragedies Revisited, Reder et
al (1993) state:
The child must be wanted and treated as a person in his/her own right,
whose
feelings are respected and of concern to the parent. In order to provide
such care, the
parents must be able to put the child’s needs above their own and
tolerate the child’s
dependency and immaturity.
2.122 This represents an important base line for the assessment of
emotional warmth.
Parents or carers who are unable or unwilling to respond to the child’s
need for
unconditional love and affection will not be able to meet one of the
child’s basic
developmental needs.
2.123 All cultures recognise the need for affectionate relationships
between adults and
children, just as all cultures create social structures in which these
relationships can
develop. There are no differences between cultural groupings in this
respect. But
where differences do emerge is in the way in which this emotional warmth
is
demonstrated.
58
2.124 The demonstration of emotional warmth is also dependent upon rules
in a family or
community about physical contact. In some communities, there are more
structured
rules about male-female contact than in white English families, but this
does not mean
that everyone from that community will behave in exactly the same way in
relation to
demonstrating physical affection to children.
2.125 Differences in what constitutes valued social behaviour also
creates variations. For
example, in western societies emphasis is placed upon children learning
the
distinction between social time with family members and time alone such
as at
bedtime. As a result, western bedtime routines encourage children to
sleep alone from
quite early ages (Swanick, 1996).
2.126 If separate sleeping is not considered to be such a desired form
of child behaviour,
attempts by parents to impose such a pattern onto a child would be
considered rigid
and inflexible parenting. On the other hand, for parents who value the
independence
of separate sleeping arrangements, shared sleeping may be perceived as
inappropriate
and lacking boundaries.
2.127 Over time variations also occur within and between cultures.
Fashions in child rearing
practices have a strong influence in the way in which parents are
expected to relate to
children. At one time in England within certain white communities it was
common
practice to leave babies outside in prams during the day. Today this
practice would be
seen as neglectful. The practice of baby massaging, common in many black
societies,
was for many years considered to be undesirable and even abusive to
children; now
there are classes run by health professionals on baby massage.
2.128 The rise of the child care expert in western societies has
exacerbated trends in
parenting. Whereas parents traditionally learnt parenting skills from
their own
experience of being parented, today’s parents are required to have a
greater level of
knowledge and skills in parenting.
_ Pointers for Practice
There are differences in the way in which affection
and love are shown to children by
adults. Some of these will be based on established
cultural patterns of behaviour whilst
some will be related more to individual, family or
social influences. In assessing
emotional warmth:
• Assessments
should take account of such variations, whilst still maintaining
consistency in the application of minimum standards of
child care;
• Professionals
need to ensure that base lines are consistent across cultures. It is not
acceptable that parents who demonstrate cold and
unloving responses to children
are able to justify their behaviour on the grounds of
cultural differences;
• In an extended
family or clan family structure the whole family may participate in the
parenting of the child, including providing emotional
warmth for the child. The
parent–child interaction will only be one of many
adult–child, child–child interactions
which should be addressed in an assessment.
59
Stimulation
2.129 Just as for emotional warmth, all children require stimulation,
and just as for
emotional warmth, the indicators for the presence of appropriate
stimulation in an
adult–child relationship have to be understood within a social and
cultural context.
2.130 There are a number of myths about stimulation in black families
which still have an
impact on professionals today. The two key myths are:
_ That
Asian parents do not have toys to stimulate children;
_ That
black parents expect children to behave as mini-adults, and take on inappropriate
responsibilities for household tasks.
2.131 The myth that Asian parents do not have toys for children seems to
have been based
upon the observations of some child care professionals that certain
Asian families did
not have play equipment in their homes.
2.132 For some Asian and Caribbean families in past generations,
purchased toys were in
evidence, but were not the main focus of play activity. Particularly for
those families
who came from rural parts of India or the Caribbean, game playing took
place
outdoors, and play equipment consisted of whatever was available in the
fields and
woods where the play took place. The same was true for many white
families who grew
up in similar environments in England. In a move to a colder, urban
environment, the
opportunity for outdoor play was severely curtailed. Children were
unable to create
their own games and exploration became supervised and controlled. Play
thus became
a more organised and contained activity. Within this context families
also adapted to
their changed environment, and toys have become the main focus for play
for all
children whether black or white.
_ Pointers for Practice
_ In assessing stimulation in black families it is important to recognise
that children’s
learning may be encouraged in a range of ways, and
that the trappings of a
stimulating environment, such as toys and play
equipment are not guarantors of a
stimulating environment for children. In assessing
families workers should make
sense of different practices.
_ In western societies the concept of childhood is underpinned by the
desire to be free
of adult responsibilities and to have opportunities
for explanation, learning and play.
In many black families children are not expected to
take on adult responsibilities, but
they are expected to learn certain skills that will
prepare them for adult life. Whilst
western values encourage pretend play, many black
families take pride in teaching
children the basics of cooking and child care at quite
young ages.
Guidance, Boundaries and Stability
2.133 Currently, guidance and boundaries is perhaps the most conflictual
area of parenting
for many black parents. It is also the area in which many black families
seek stability in
a changing world, through the maintenance of traditional values.
60
2.134 There are inherent tensions created by trying to maintain a strong
sense of black
culture and heritage, whilst at the same time living in an
industrialised western and
racist environment with very different values from the traditions of
Africa, the
Caribbean or Asia.
2.135 Black parents recognise and worry about these tensions:
Along with trends in the wider UK population, there appears to be a
trend among
black families towards an emphasis on co-operation rather than the discipline
of
physical control... This has been assisted by changes to UK statutes,
which some
Black parents view as very child-centred, and also as a double-edged
sword (Hylton,
1997).
2.136 Black parents wish to imbue their children with the values which they
hope will help
their children to survive in a hostile environment, but they are
concerned that their
values do not have the support of many professionals.
Black parents often find that what is being reinforced at home varies
greatly from at
school, so both child and parent are in a dilemma regarding support for
what they
value within their culture (Grant, 1996).
2.137 At the heart of the value conflict between black and white western
values lies different
perspectives on independence.
In non-Western European extended families, autonomy and competence are
differently defined. There is more likely to be an emphasis on parents
raising
children to be “dependable” – that is to take on a role within the
extended family,
rather than be independent. This can cause much friction in the home for
children
who have grown up within western society (Grant, 1996).
2.138 Dosanjh and Ghuman’s study (1998) confirms the desire of many
Asian parents to
maintain traditional values:
From the responses of the Punjabi mothers of both generations we infer
that they
are in favour of encouraging their children to be conscious of, and to
appreciate, the
custom of familial interdependence rather than to follow and absorb the
Euro-
American style of rugged individualism.
2.139 This is essential if professionals are to gain the support of
black families as partners in
the protection of black children. Black families at present perceive
child welfare
professionals as undermining of black communities. In Hylton’s study,
one black
parent speaks for many:
(UK) society is destroying the black family in the sense that the very
same society
that said to you, you cannot scold your children, you cannot speak too
roughly to
your children, will take your child away from you and put your child in
a social
environment … so that the values that they pass down to your children
are worse
than what you would give … and it’s the same society that would pick up
your child
that they took away from you in the first place, and put your child
behind bars, and
say he’s a criminal.
61
_ Pointers for Practice
In assessing guidance and boundaries, professionals
should understand the context in
which these are developed. In undertaking assessments:
• Professionals should be aware that
black families at present perceive child welfare
professionals as undermining of black communities,
particularly in relation to the
guidance of and boundaries for young people;
• The imposition of a western and
individualised model of autonomy and independence
is at variance with the values of many black families,
and it’s application in
assessment and intervention can destabilise families
and family support networks;
• Where intergenerational or family
conflicts arise in relation to guidance and
boundaries, negotiations are necessary to reconcile
differences.
Domain: Family And Environmental Factors
2.140 Social work with children and families is, as Macdonald (1991)
acknowledges ‘rooted
in the pain and suffering of people who are struggling against odds
which are
sometimes too great, whether that is due to illness, poverty, racism,
homelessness or
other strains and pressures’.
2.141 Any assessment that ignores the wider context of social and
economic factors and its
impact on family life, is incomplete as is one which further ignores
racism and its
impact on the social and economic context of black families.
2.142 This section draws on research and other evidence to highlight
some of the issues
pertinent to black families regarding family and environmental factors.
This
information sets out the wider socio-economic context of black families.
The general
issues may or may not all be relevant to each family and even where it
is relevant will
not affect all families in the same way.
_ Pointers for Practice
• Each of the dimensions identified
should not be seen in isolation from each other. For
instance, having a large family may not in itself be a
problem for any one family but if
the family are also experiencing overcrowding and low
income it may result in family
members experiencing additional stress. Any assessment
process should take account
of the impact on the family of the various factors
interacting with each other.
Family History and Functioning
Family size
2.143 An analysis of the 1991 census shows (Haskey, 1997):
_ of
every thousand Black Caribbean families, 540 are families with children;
_ for
the Pakistani community this figure is 810 per thousand families;
62
_ and
840 out of every thousand families for the Bangladeshi community;
_ The
comparative figure for white communities is 417 per thousand families.
2.144 There are some differences in the family sizes of different black
communities. A recent
survey (PSI, 1997) shows, for instance, that Pakistani and Bangladeshi
people have
larger families with 33% and 42% of them respectively having four or
more children.
In comparison, in Caribbean communities the percentage of families with
four or
more children is 7%, in Indian families 11% and in Chinese and
African-Asian
families 3%.
2.145 As Butt and Mizra (1996) conclude ‘For the vast majority of black
communities,
family units with children under the age of 16 are a common experience.
Furthermore, these families are likely to have more children under the
age of 16 than
their white counterparts’.
Family structure and arrangements
2.146 Butt and Box (1998) observe that public debate on families ‘often
conflates marital
status and the actual living arrangements of families, and on occasion
unmarried
mothers and lone parents are seen as interchangeable’. The 1991 census
has allowed
both issues to be explored. In relation to marital status, the data
shows that whilst over
66% of India, Pakistani and Bangladeshi men over 16 are married, over
47% of
Caribbean men over the age of 16 are single. In relation to different
family types, the
census analysis also shows that whilst 55% of Caribbean families with
children under
16 are lone parents, 92% of Indian families with children under 16 are
married couple
families (Haskey, 1997).
2.147 The ONS (1996) suggests:
_ around
54% of black Caribbean children are brought up in lone mother
households and 3% in lone father households;
_ for
children of Indian origin around 7% are in lone mother households and around
1% in lone father households;
_ for
Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities the figures are 8% in lone mother and
1% in lone father households;
_ for
the Chinese community 11% of children are being brought up on lone mother
and 1% in lone father households.
2.148 Regarding family structures for children in the ‘Black other’
category, the ONS (1996)
figures suggest that 49% of children categorised as ‘Black other’ live
in lone mother
households and 2% live in lone father households. Two separate studies
(Barn, 1993;
Barn et al, 1997) also show that the majority of looked after children
of dual heritage
in these studies had a white mother and the majority of their parents
had never
married.
63
_ Pointers for Practice
• In assessing black families it is
important to take account of family size and structure.
For instance, a family with three or more children
with a low income and poor
housing is a family likely to experience hardship. Any
assessment process should
address the implications of this for families;
• Although the fact of a lone parent
household in itself may not be an issue for an
individual family, a lone parent household with no
support networks may impact on
family functioning. Furthermore, lone parenthood can
have an impact on income
and wealth, and in turn can impact on the material
wellbeing of children. This should
be taken account of in an assessment.
• In relation to a child of dual
heritage assessments should consider the implications of
family arrangements on the child and family. For
instance how does living in a white
only household impact on the child’s position within
the family, or how does a single
white mother’s isolation from her community affect her
relationship with her child?
• It is important for assessors to
understand that the evidence of a higher incidence of
lone parenthood amongst Caribbean people does not rule
out exploration of the
issue of ‘visiting’ relationships, where the
responsibility for care of the children may
be shared although the parents may not live together.
Parenting strengths and difficulties
2.149 Despite the social and economic impact of racism on families and
the detrimental
impact of immigration laws and racial violence on families and
communities, over
many generations black families have demonstrated strengths and
resilience in the face
of adversity. Unfortunately social work practice with black families has
often failed to
work with the strengths of black families and has relied instead on a
problem oriented
approach to black families.
2.150 A deficit model which views families as dysfunctional can preclude
adequate support
being provided to families. For instance, evidence shows that where
professionals fail
to provide adequate support in the early stages of intervention there is
an increased
likelihood of the child becoming looked after (Barn, 1993).
2.151 It is also apparent that race is a factor in the support offered
to black families. Many black
families do not access family support services (Butt and Box, 1998) and
the Tyra Henry
and Sukina Hammond Inquiry Reports demonstrate that racism and gender
based
stereotyping can impact on the amount and timing of the support which is
offered.
_ Pointers for Practice
• Assessments
should inform interventions which build on the strengths of black
families, whilst ensuring that areas of difficulty or
potential risk to the child’s safety
are identified and addressed appropriately;
• An empowerment
model of assessment should recognise the life experiences of
black families, particularly the ability of families
to survive and resist a system that is
disadvantaging;
64
• Targeted
support to address family problems should be based on an understanding
of a family’s circumstances as the result of the
assessment process rather than on the
basis of assumptions underpinned by stereotypical
beliefs of black families.
Wider Family
2.152 The wider family, often referred to as the extended family, has
been an important
feature of the lives of many black and minority ethnic people. Hylton
(1997) notes, in
his study of the survival strategies used by black families, that the
majority of black
people ‘rarely made a disconnection between the unit of mother, father
and child – the
so called nuclear family – and relatives such as grandparents, sisters,
brothers, aunts
and uncles. They were all collectively known as the “family”’.
2.153 For many, the wider family is not restricted to aunts, uncles and
grandparents, but as has
already been highlighted earlier, includes family friends and other
non-blood relatives.
2.154 However, not all individual black families will have this wide
family network. This is
of particular relevance for many refugee and asylum seeking individuals
and families
who have left their homeland alone or with their immediate family. For
these people,
in common with other black people, the family in the wider sense is
central. Family in
this context could be other refugees and asylum seekers, and links will
therefore be
made with individuals and families coming from the same geographical
regions.
2.155 For some families with no close family members in this country,
links with family and
friends living either in their country of origin or other parts of the
world, will be
important.
_ Pointers for Practice
• In assessing
black families, practitioners should ascertain from children and family
members their perception of who constitutes their
wider family and tap into the
strengths that may be present in that wider family
network.
Housing
2.156 Butt and Mirza (1996) in reviewing the research data on housing
and tenure for black
communities conclude ‘Though a large proportion of black people own
their own
accommodation there is evidence to suggest that the black community
occupy older
inner city accommodation which lacks basic amenities. Furthermore, black
households
are more likely to experience overcrowding compared to the white
population’.
2.157 There is some evidence to suggest black people live in
neighbourhoods that are
rundown. A survey (PSI, 1997) found:
Ethnic minorities tended to live in areas with higher than average
levels of
unemployment, they were more likely than whites to mention environmental
problems such as graffiti, vandalism and vermin infestation, and they
were more
likely than whites to report problems of personal and property crime and
nuisance
trouble from some young people.
65
Overall, whites were the most likely to say they were very satisfied
with the current
neighbourhoods and housing: Caribbean, Bangladeshi’s and the Chinese
were the
most likely to be dissatisfied with their local neighbourhoods, and
Caribbeans and
Bangladeshi’s were the most dissatisfied with their neighbourhoods.
Employment
2.158 The same PSI Survey (1997) found also that unemployment rates
amongst men under
retirement age was the highest amongst Caribbean (31%) Bangladeshi (42%)
and
Pakistani men (38%). The unemployment rates amongst Chinese, African
Asians and
Indians was 9, 14 and 19 % respectively. In relation to the white
community the
percentage is 15.
2.159 For women the Chinese had the lowest rates of unemployment at 6%
followed by
whites at 9%, African Asians and Indians 12% and Caribbeans at 18 %. For
Pakistani
and Bangladeshi women it was 39% and 40% respectively.
Income
Poverty is more than simply economic deprivation, it means being
completely
isolated from the means to change one’s circumstances (Carter, 1998).
2.160 The extent of poverty in black communities is now well documented.
Berthoud, in
analysing data from the fourth national survey of ethnic minorities in
Britain which
was conducted by PSI/SCPR in 1994, notes that 82% of Pakistani, 84% of
Bangladeshi, 45% of Indians, 41% of Caribbean and 39% of ‘African Asian’
households had incomes that were below half the average income, in
comparison to
28% of white households.
2.161 The PSI survey (1997) notes that although there were wide
variations in the extent of
poverty in the various black communities, ‘all minorities included in
this survey, with
the exception of people of Chinese origin, were disadvantaged with
respect to the
white majority’.
2.162 The survey found also that:
_ the
extent of poverty among both Pakistani and Bangladeshi households was
outstanding;
_ Caribbean,
Indian and African Asian households were more likely to be in poverty,
and less likely to have relatively high family incomes than white
households;
_ where
financial problems such as arrears and money worries were concerned,
Caribbeans had exceptionally high levels of rent arrears and were much
more likely
to report money worries than any other group.
2.163 No specific information exists about the level and extent of
poverty and its impact on
black disabled children and their families. Evidence suggests, however,
that families
with a disabled child are generally affected significantly by poverty. A
national survey
66
(Beresford, 1995) exploring the needs and circumstances of families
caring for a
severely disabled child found that families in the survey ‘had
substantially lower
incomes than the general population...’. The survey also shows
that employment
levels for mothers of disabled children were much lower than for mothers
with nondisabled
children and that ‘nine out of ten lone parent families, and a third of
two
parent families, had no income other than benefits’.
2.164 Although there are no data available on black children who are
disabled the incidence
and prevalence of disability amongst black communities is likely to be
either the same
rate and certainly no less than in the white population (Butt and Mirza,
1996). Given
that family units with children are the rule rather than the exception
and the disproportionate
levels of poverty in the black communities, it could be safely concluded
that black disabled children are as likely to experience poverty as
white disabled
children.
_ Pointers for Practice
• In assessing
the needs of children and their families it is important to understand the
implications of social and economic context within
which families live and more
importantly how fears and worries about money, health,
education and employment
impact on family life;
• In assessing
black families any attempts to disregard the impact of racism on the
social and economic context in which black families
live will result in an assessment
which is incomplete.
Families Social Integration
2.165 The extent to which individual black families feel integrated and
part of their local
neighbourhood will vary. The following factors might have an impact on
the social
integration of black family’s into their neighbourhoods:
_ Black
families tend to live in areas of higher than average black population. This is
as much to do with individuals and families choosing to be in
surroundings and
with people who appear familiar, as it is to do with people feeling
‘safe in numbers’.
For many black people living amongst a majority of black people gives
them a sense
of belonging and provides them with a certain level of support and
security;
_ Black
communities are not homogeneous. Some black families, although living in
predominantly black areas, may be in cultural or religious minorities in
those
communities. This will not, in itself, be problematic but individual
families from
those minority groups may find their support network is located outside
their
locality. For instance, refugee families may consider support from other
refugee
families more appropriate. Their social integration into their locality
may be less
important than their social and emotional links with other refugees;
67
_ Many
black families live in hostile communities where racial abuse and harassment
are a daily feature of their lives. There are some areas where black
families are
frightened to allow their children to play outside home and where adults
feel under
siege.
_ Pointers for Practice
• Any assessment
with individual black families should recognise that although many
black families gain strength from living amongst their
own community, there are
individual black families whose experience of living
amongst black people may not
necessarily be a positive one. As with the white
community, the reasons for any black
family feeling either isolated or ostracised from the
majority community will vary.
Whatever the reason it is important to think of the
support networks for such
families;
• Alongside the
individual impact which racial abuse and bullying has on children, it is
important to consider the impact of racial violence on
communities. Fear of abuse or
attacks can affect whole ways of life in particular
communities which are targeted for
such treatment by reducing the freedom of movement of
women, children and older
people in both the hours of daylight and at night. In
such cases local authorities
should plan for community safety in a more pro-active
and co-ordinated way, using
the auspices of children’s planning processes and area
child protection committees,
alongside initiatives to reduce crime and improve
safety in the locality.
Community Resources
2.166 The anomalous situation regarding community resources for black
communities is
that on one hand black individuals have access to some very positive
support from
black voluntary organisations and on the other have little access to
resources provided
by the statutory sector and some white voluntary sector organisations.
2.167 In relation to preventative services for children and families
provided by statutory
organisations, evidence suggests that black families have less access to
those services
than white families. For instance in relation to child protection a
study by Farmer and
Owen (1995) found that ‘many black families did not have access to much
needed
services. Even after registration this situation often continues, partly
because of lack of
appropriate resources’.
2.168 Equally, a study of family centres and their use by black families
also found that ‘family
centres are not intrinsically providers of accessible and appropriate
services to black
families’ (Butt and Box, 1998).
2.169 Although services from mainstream organisations have been
inaccessible black
communities have had some very positive support from black voluntary
organisations.
The role of the black voluntary sector in providing much of needed
services to
black people is well recognised (Phaure, 1991; Atkin, 1996; Butt and
Box, 1998).
Apart from providing much needed services, involvement in black organisations
has
also been one of the survival strategies used by many in the black
communities
(Hylton, 1997).
68
69
_ Pointers for Practice
• During the
assessment process professionals should ascertain from families what are
their perceptions of available community resources
what kinds of services would be
most helpful to them and how to make statutory sector
services appropriate and
accessible to them.
Adams N (1981) Lambeth Directorate of Social Services. London
Borough of Lambeth.
Arnold E (1975) Out of sight not out of mind. M.Phil, University
of Sussex.
Atkin K (1996) An opportunity for change, voluntary sector provision in
a mixed
economy of care. Race and Community Care. Open University Press.
Banks N (1992) Some considerations of racial identification when working
with
mixed ethnicity children and their mothers as social services clients. Child
Development. 41: 49–67.
Barn R (1990) Black children in local authority care; admission
patterns. New
Community. 16(2):
229–246.
Barn R (1993) Black Children in the Public Care System. Batsford,
London.
Barn R (1999) White Mothers, Mixed Parentage Children and Child Welfare.
British
Journal of Social Work. 29: 269–284.
Barn R, Sinclair R and Ferdinand D (1997) Acting on principle, an
examination of race
and ethnicity in social services provision for children and families. BAAF, London.
Barter C (1999) Protecting children from racism and racial abuse. A
research review. The
NSPCC, London.
Batta I, Mc Culloch J and Smith N (1979) Colour as a variable in Childrens’
Sections
of Local Authority Social Services Departments. New Community. 7:
78–84.
Begum N (1992). Something to be proud of: The lives of Asian Disabled
people and carers
in Waltham Forest. Race Relations Unit, London Borough of
Waltham Forest.
Beresford B (1995) The needs of disabled children and their families. Findings
from
social care research. No. 76. Joseph
Rowntree Foundation, York.
Berrington A (1996) Marriage patterns and inter-ethnic unions. In
Coleman D and
Salt J (eds) Ethnicity in the 1991 census. Vol 1, HMSO, London.
Bowlby J (1969) Attachment and Loss, Vol I, Attachment. Hogarth,
London
Bowlby J (1973) Attachment and Loss, Vol II, Separation: Anxiety and
Anger.Hogarth,
London.
Bowlby J (1988) A Secure Base: Clinical Applications of Attachment
Theory. Routledge,
London.
The Bridge Child Care Consultancy Services (1991) Sukina; An
evaluation report of
the circumstances leading to her death. The
Bridge, London.
Butt J and Box L (1998) Family Centred. A study of the use of family
centres by black
families. REU, London.
Butt J and Mirza K (1996) Social care and black communities A review
of recent research
studies. HMSO, London.
Carter H (1998) A joined-up solution to poverty. Voluntary Voice
No.129. London
Voluntary Services Council (LVSC), London.
Cashmore E (1984) Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations. Routledge,
London.
70
References – Chapter 2
CCETSW (1996) Children, Spirituality and Religion. A Training Pack. Central
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Childline (1996) Children and racism. Childline, London.
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York.
Introduction
3.1 The Assessment Framework is designed to be inclusive of all children
in need. Social
Services Departments have a duty to ensure that every child is assessed
in a way which
recognises the child’s individuality and particular needs. For many
reasons, disabled
children are more likely to come to the attention of health, education
and social
services and are far more likely to be assessed than other children.
This guidance is
therefore aimed at everyone involved in assessments, not just at those
who have a
specialist role with disabled children.
3.2 An assessment is a positive opportunity to identify and respond to
the needs of
children and families. It is most likely to be helpful to a child and
family if it draws
together multi-disciplinary expertise. Serious concerns have been raised
about the
quality of assessments of disabled children (Audit Commission, 1994;
Department of
Health, 1994; 1998a; 1998b; Morris, 1998b; Kagan et al,1998;
Middleton,1999).
The process of assessment and the likelihood of multiple assessment
arrangements
may compound the difficulties facing disabled children and their
families and result in
conflicting messages about the needs and the most effective types of
intervention/or
support. As stated in the Guidance (Department of Health et al, 2000,
paragraph
1.42):
… since discrimination of all kinds is an everyday reality in many
children’s lives,
every effort must be made to ensure that agencies responses do not
reflect or
reinforce that experience and indeed, should counteract it.
3.3 In the past, disabled children have often been excluded from or
marginalised within
mainstream services, and many standard assessment frameworks and
approaches have
been developed with only non-disabled children in mind. The Children Act
1989
emphasises disabled children are ‘children first’ and the Assessment
Framework is
based on this principle of inclusion. However, recognising disabled
children as
children first does not imply denial of a child’s particular needs:
‘Ensuring equality of
opportunity does not mean that all children are treated the same. It
does mean
understanding and working sensitively and knowledgeably with diversity…’
(Department of Health et al, 2000, paragraph 1.43).
3.4 This practice guidance aims to assist those undertaking assessments
of need, by
enabling practitioners and managers to understand and work more
sensitively with
disabled children and their families. It is intended that the use of the
Assessment
Framework will mark a radical departure in assessment, moving from
single agency
73
3 Assessing
the needs of disabled children
and their families
service led assessments to assessments of the whole child by a
co-ordinated group of
professionals.
3.5 In preparation for this chapter Triangle consulted with disabled
children through
aMaze, a Brighton based project providing advice, information and
support to assist
parents to obtain the best for their disabled children. Quotes
referenced as personal
communication are from these groups and we are grateful for the
children’s consent to
use their words.
Disabled children and the Assessment Framework
3.6 The basic needs of disabled children are no different to those of
any other child. The
domains and dimensions of the Assessment Framework are relevant for all
children.
‘Professionals working with children need not and should not start from
a different
position when the children are disabled’ (Middleton, 1999 p.92). While
disabled
children’s basic needs are the same as all children’s needs, impairments
may create
additional needs. Disabled children are also likely to face additional
disabling barriers
which inhibit or prevent their inclusion in society. The assessment of a
disabled child
must address the needs of the parent carers. Recognising the needs of
parent carers is a
core component in agreeing services which will promote the welfare of
the disabled
child. The main part of this chapter considers the needs and barriers in
relation to each
of the dimensions of the Assessment Framework.
3.7 The Assessment Framework is highly relevant for disabled children,
for example the
emphasis on responding to a child’s individual needs; the expectation of
children’s
involvement in the process; the commitment to working with parents and
children;
the emphasis on inter-agency working and the underlying ecological and
empowerment models. A careful assessment that involves the child should
be a helpful
experience and result in real improvements in a child’s life. Information
from
assessments can result in changes in the nature of service provision,
especially if unmet
need is recorded and used to inform children’s services planning
processes. Good
quality assessments will also encourage active partnerships between mainstream
and
specialist services; working together to maximise disabled children’s
inclusion in
family life, education and community services.
3.8 Depending on the definitions and methodology used, between 3% and 5%
of
children in the United Kingdom are classified as disabled (OPCS, 1986;
Department
of Health, 1998a). Different definitions of disability and a summary of
the legislation
are in Appendix 4.
3.9 Childhood disability arouses very strong feelings and touches on
some of our most
fundamental beliefs and assumptions. The cultural context in which
assessments of
disabled children take place is not a neutral one: disabled children and
adults face major
barriers to participating as equal members of our society. There are
different ways of
defining and understanding disability. Within the disabled people’s
movement, and
within some services and some professional groups, there has been a move
from an
individual to a social model of disability. ‘The individual model
locates the ‘problem’ of
disability within the individual and sees the causes as functional
limitations or psychological
losses assumed to arise from disability’(Oliver, 1999, p.33).
74
3.10 This guidance is informed by an understanding of the ‘social model’
of disability,
which uses the term disability not to refer to impairment (functional
limitations) but
rather to describe the effects of prejudice and discrimination: the
social factors which
create barriers, deny opportunities, and thereby dis-able people
(Morris, 1998c;
Oliver, 1999). Children’s impairments can of course create genuine
difficulties in their
lives. However, many of the problems faced by disabled children are not
caused by
their conditions or impairments, but by societal values, service
structures, or adult
behaviour (Shakespeare and Watson, 1998):
a major problem for disabled children is that they live in a society
which views
childhood impairment as deeply problematic (p.20).
3.11 Effective assessment of a disabled child must consider:
_ the
direct impact of a child’s impairment;
_ any
disabling barriers that the child faces; and
_ how
to overcome such barriers.
Disabled Children and assessment
3.12 Disabled children are far more likely than non-disabled children to
be subject to
multiple assessments by health, education and social services. There are
several reasons
for this:
_ There
are more disabled children in groups already socially disadvantaged.
Whatever system is used to classify disability, there are twice the
number of disabled
children in social class 5 households as in social class 1 and there is
a strong
relationship between childhood disability and poverty/household income
(Department of Health, 1998a; Dobson and Middleton,1999). The increased
prevalence of certain impairments in some minority ethnic groups has
also been
linked to social disadvantage (Murphy et al, 1998).
_ Disabled
children are more likely to have a number of experiences that may
trigger assessment. Disabled children face an increased risk
of abuse (Westcott,
1993; Westcott and Cross, 1996; Westcott and Jones, 1999); and of school
exclusion and social exclusion in its widest sense (Middleton, 1999).
Disabled
children are more likely to live away from home: to be accommodated on a
short or
long-term basis and/or to be in state-funded residential education.
_ Assessment
has become the route to ordinary entitlements for many disabled
children and their families.Disabled
children often have to be assessed to access the
same basic provisions as non-disabled children, for example education,
housing,
play and leisure opportunities.
_ Assessment
of special educational needs. Many disabled children
are assessed
before they reach statutory school age because it is likely they will
have special
educational needs (SEN).
75
Using assessments positively with disabled children
and young people
3.13 When planning an assessment involving a disabled child it is
important to:
_ think
about your own understanding of disability;
_ take
into account the child’s experience and understanding of assessment;
_ take
into account the family’s experience and understanding of assessment;
_ be
clear about the focus of an assessment;
_ find
out who else is currently involved with the child;
_ gather
information from existing assessments;
_ access
helpful information on specific childhood impairments.
Each of these areas will be addressed in turn.
3.14 Think about your own understanding of disability.Our
perceptions of what it means
to be disabled will affect our work. It is essential to actively explore
our own attitudes
and understanding, and to be aware of our own prejudices, fears and
stereotypes about
disability and about particular impairments. The inclusive approach of
the
Assessment Framework should be reflected in all areas of practice. Are
disabled
children made to feel welcome by your services? Is your building fully
accessible? Do
you employ disabled workers? Are your toys, books and resources suitable
for all
children? Are there positive images of disabled children around? Do you
have a clear
policy on anti-discriminatory practice? Are staff offered information,
training and
support on the inclusion of disabled children within the service? Is
disability equality
training offered to staff? Can facilities and approaches be adapted for
the communication
needs of disabled children, for example loop systems and/or use of
signing for
deaf children?
3.15 Take into account the child’s experience and understanding of
assessment.Disabled
children are likely to have been assessed, often frequently, and often
within a pathologising,
deficit model where the child was tested against some concept of
normality. For
some disabled children, the very word assessment may have unhelpful
connotations:
Its always about what’s wrong with me ... they’re only interested in the
bits of me that
don’t work. They want to see what I can’t do (11 year old disabled girl,
personal
communication).
Disabled children and young people may not be used to active involvement
in
assessment processes. Children are entitled to an explanation of the
assessment which
is appropriate to their age and understanding. As far as is possible,
the purpose should
be agreed with the child as an assessment of their situation rather than
of the child him
or herself. This enables the child to become an essential part of the
assessment team,
contributing to information gathering and decision making, rather than
being the
passive focus of the exercise.
3.16 Take into account the family’s experience and understanding of
assessment.
Families of disabled children will also have experienced many
assessments. Some
families describe dealing with service providers as the most difficult
aspect of caring for
76
their disabled children (Department of Health, 1998b, p.32). In one
study, only 25%
of parents of disabled children felt that assessment arrangements were
well coordinated
(Audit Commission, 1994). Assessments can undoubtedly be traumatic
and difficult for some families:
I found assessment meetings a nightmare. I felt I was listening to
people talk about
somebody other than the child I lived with. After the first assessment
at the child
development centre I went home and cried for four days... (Parent of disabled child,
quoted in Murray and Penman, 1996).
3.17 Families require clear information about the focus of any
assessment and about
available services providing support. Parents should be clearly informed
that their
views and priorities are important and they should be encouraged to
contribute to the
process. The process should include recognition of the parent carers
needs in bringing
up their children.
3.18 Some families would like friends, advocates or relatives to support
them during
assessments and this should be facilitated. Experience with named
persons in
education indicates that discussions can be more positive and open when
families who
wish for support are accompanied by their own adviser or friend
(Russell, 1999).
3.19 Parents of disabled children can be assigned multiple and sometimes
contradictory
roles by professionals. Twigg and Atkin (1993) describe the range of
ways that professionals
in social and health care systems conceptualise and respond to parents:
they are
perceived, simultaneously, as resources for the statutory services,
co-workers and
service recipients in their own right, while their children may or may
not be also
perceived as service recipients. This can create an ambiguous and
confused
relationship.
3.20 Be clear about the focus of an assessment. The Assessment
Guidance states:
However difficult the circumstances, the purpose of assessing the
particular child
and the family should always be kept in mind (paragraph 3.37).
3.21 Assessments should focus on the circumstances of the child and
family and not just on
an individual and whether a particular service is available. For
disabled children in
particular, there is a concern that assessments may be focused around
assessing the
child’s problems, or assessing the child for specific services, rather
than assessing the
child’s overall situation and needs. The most recent Department of
Health inspection
of services to disabled children found that ‘There were very few
needs-led assessments
... more frequently families were subject to a number of parallel
assessments, often
trawling through the same information but with a different service in
mind’
(Department of Health, 1998b, p.23).
3.22 Clarity of focus will also enable parents and children to
contribute more effectively to
an assessment. As an example, parents may perceive a broad assessment of
a child’s
social integration that considers the possibility of using inclusive
play and leisure
facilities as an attempt to remove existing respite care arrangements.
Clarity about the
focus of the assessment is likely to diminish such anxieties.
3.23 In many cases practical help is most effective for a family with a
disabled child, for
example advice about benefits or the timely provision of aids and
adaptations in the
home. The needs of disabled children and their families for specialist
disability
77
equipment and assistive technology should be included in the assessment
process.
Equipment could range from a wheelchair and communication aid for the
disabled
child to special beds and lifting equipment to help parents or other
carers. Assessment
for equipment may need to involve several professionals on a
multi-disciplinary basis
and collaboration across agencies, particularly where different types of
equipment
have to be integrated. Where the relevant expertise is not available at
local level,
specialist centres such as communications aids centres may need to
become involved.
The views and wishes of the child and parents should be taken into
account. A choice
of equipment and the opportunity to try it out, for example by visiting
a disabled
living centre, should be offered as far as possible.
3.24 Find out who else is involved currently with the child. Assessment
processes ‘should
be co-ordinated at all stages’ (Department of Health, 1998b, p.57) and
assessments of
disabled children may be undertaken jointly with shared responsibility
across agency
boundaries (Department of Health et al, 2000).
3.25 Services for disabled children are often fragmented between
different agencies.
Different perspectives, values and professional languages can complicate
working
together across agency and discipline boundaries. Young disabled
children often come
sequentially to the attention of health, then education and then social
services.
Children who acquire their impairments may come suddenly into contact
with all
three agencies. Children with progressive conditions may have to switch
between
services and agencies as their needs change.
3.26 Within agencies, responsibilities for assessments of disabled
children may also be
located in different teams. For example, specialist social work teams
for the deaf are
often in either the disability or adult divisions, yet families obtain
services from child
care social workers or workers located in children with disabilities
teams. Working
across these boundaries can be facilitated by the development of a
culture of coworking
to harness all available expertise when assessing disabled children.
3.27 Gather information from existing assessments. Disabled
children are likely to have
already been assessed, and information already gathered should be
accessed, having
obtained consents as appropriate. Parents find it hard to tell their
story again and again
(Department of Health,1998b, p.22). Both children and family members
often
assume that agencies will share information with each other and may be
surprised to
find that they do not. Parents and children can be asked who they think
has the most
relevant knowledge – many have reported thinking the wrong professionals
were
consulted (Russell, 1999).
3.28 Integrated inter-agency assessment processes are in place in some
areas and being
developed in others (Russell, 1995; McConahie, 1997; Khan and Russell,
1999).
Cross-agency key working can also enable effective information sharing
(Mukherjee et
al, 1999). Even where these mechanisms are not yet in place, information
from other
assessments should be available. For example, the Code of Practice on
the Identification
and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (Department
for Education and
Employment, 1994) requires local educational authorities to send a copy
of the final
statement of a child’s special educational needs and accompanying advice
to the social
services department, whether or not social services have provided advice
during the
assessment process. It is good practice to seek parent’s permission to
send information
to other agencies but where there are concerns about a child’s safety
local authorities
78
may transfer information in the best interests of children without
formal permission
(see Working Together to Safeguard Children 1999, paragraphs 7.27
to 7.46).
3.29 Access helpful information on specific childhood impairments. It
may be important
to learn in general about the likely effects of an impairment or
condition before
meeting a child and his or her family. As a disabled teenager reported
in Cross (1998)
said:
I wish they knew more about disability, I mean, its sort of embarrassing
to have to
explain yourself (p.102).
3.30 Learning about a child’s condition does not mean becoming an
expert. There are
organisations of and for people with almost all impairments and
conditions, and for
parents. These are often good sources of accessible and up-to-date
information1. It is
important however to remember that every child experiences their
condition
differently. It will be important to understand the impact of an
impairment on this
child in this family as part of an assessment. Usually the best source
of information will
be the child and their family.
3.31 Given that disabled children will have had many experiences of
having things done to
them, it is important also to be careful about issues of consent and
clarity of
explanations. In particular ‘pretend’ choices should be avoided, where
the child’s
consent is apparently sought but in reality the child has no choice:
‘shall we take your
coat off?’, ‘do you want this injection?’, ‘would you like to talk to
me?’. Repeatedly
being offered pretend choices can distort a child’s experience and may
contribute to
disabled children’s vulnerability to abuse. A good general rule is only
to ask a question
if you will go along with a refusal as well as acceptance.
Domain: Child’s Developmental Needs
3.32 All children need to be loved and valued for who they are, and all
children have
developmental needs. A disabled child’s impairment(s) will affect a
child’s growth,
development and physical or mental wellbeing to a greater or lesser
degree. Some
children will have many areas of development not affected by their
impairments.
Other impairments have more of a global impact. Like their non-disabled
peers, the
developmental needs of disabled children are formed by the interactions
between their
unique physiological and psychological characteristics, their social and
emotional
experiences within their families and their environment which includes
prejudice and
disabling barriers. Differentiating the impact of a child’s
impairment(s) from the
impact of the child’s experiences is important. Assessing concerns about
a child’s
development requires particular clarity where a child is disabled.
3.33 ‘There must be a clear understanding of what a particular child is
capable of achieving
successfully at each stage of development, in order to ensure that he or
she has the
opportunity to achieve his or her full potential’ (Department of Health
et al, 2000,
79
1. Contact a Family provides help and advice for
professional workers and families caring for
disabled children through CONTACT LINE. Tel: 0171 383 3555.
Fax: 0171 383 0259. The British
Council of Disabled People is Britain’s national
umbrella organisation for groups controlled by
disabled people. Tel: 01332 295551. Fax: 01332 295580.
Minicom: 01332 295581.
80
paragraph 2.3). Assessment standards around developmental milestones
should be
used with great care. For example, early assessment of deaf children
will enable access
to language development, whether spoken or manual, as soon as possible
following
diagnosis.
3.34 A useful question in assessment is: ‘Would I consider that option
if the child were not
disabled?’. Clear reasons are necessary if the answer is ‘no’
(Middleton, 1996).
_ Pointers for Practice
CHILD’S DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS
• Is the child
loved and valued for who they are?
• Does the
child’s impairment directly affect his or her growth, development and
physical or mental wellbeing?
• Are there
disabling barriers which limit the child or otherwise hinder his or her
development?
• What action can
be taken to ensure that the child has maximum access to family,
education and community life?
• What action can
be taken to safeguard or support the child’s development?
Health
3.35 All children have the right to good health care. Disabled children
have the same
entitlements as other children to appropriate health care when ill, and
to opportunities
to maximise their wellbeing, including health and education.
Additionally,
disabled children’s health, development and wellbeing, and sometimes
their lives, may
depend on specialist medical intervention. Health care in its wider
sense can also
reduce, prevent or sometimes cure functional impairments for some
disabled
children. Medical professionals are often the first to have contact with
a disabled child
and their family and can be major providers of information, advice and
support
throughout childhood. Child development centres can enable effective,
holistic
assessments of children by combining the skills of different
professionals in one team.
3.36 The medical treatment of disabled children has led to some
criticism. First, some
children have been prescribed intrusive and quite vigorous treatments
and therapies
when the efficacy of the treatment is not known. These programmes may
involve new,
alternative or unorthodox approaches and concerns have been raised about
the lack of
safeguards: In the words of one critic, ‘in the lives of disabled
children ... anything goes
as long as you call it therapeutic’ (Oliver, 1999, p.107).
3.37 Second, therapy and treatment can imply deficiency (i.e. something
wrong or bad that
needs to be made better or put right), which can interfere with the
development of a
positive identity. Some disabled adults are now writing very critically
about the
unintended consequences of childhood medical experiences for the
development of
children’s self-esteem (see French, 1993; 1996; Cross, 1998).
3.38 An unhelpful polarisation about the benefits of medical
interventions has arisen where
people argue in favour of the medical model or the social model without
a case by case
analysis of the likely benefits and possible disadvantages of specific
treatments for
individual children.
3.39 Most parents want what is best for their disabled child. However,
there is not always
consensus among parents, children and different professionals about the
treatment or
therapy that is best for a child. This is sometimes the case within
orthodox medicine
and there is less agreement about alternative or complementary medicine.
Sometimes
there is strong support from parents for a particular new treatment or
therapy while
psychologists and physicians may remain unconvinced of the efficacy of
such
innovations.
3.40 Consideration of the impact of both conventional and alternative
treatments may
thus be an important element of assessments involving disabled children.
This does
not only mean a clinical assessment of the efficacy of a particular
treatment, but a
holistic look at the impact of treatment or therapy on a child’s life.
Some therapies and
treatments for disabled children can be disruptive, controversial and
sometimes
painful or distressing. The child may have to spend long periods of time
in therapy, or
away from home and therefore family. The longer term benefits of
treatment will have
to be considered alongside any short-term social and emotional costs to
the child.
Denying access to appropriate treatments and therapies could be
neglectful or even
abusive if the child’s health or development is further impaired as a
result.
3.41 A balanced approach to each child’s individual needs is essential.
The following
guiding principle is useful: services should always meet a child’s
particular needs in
ways that least disrupt the needs they have in common with all children,
and
treatments and therapies should be delivered in ways that least disrupt
children’s lives.
3.42 It is helpful to have ways assessing the validity and risk of new
treatments. Some recent
attempts have been made to give guidance on decisions about alternative
treatments
for particular conditions, specifically in relation to autism (Howlin,
1998) and
cerebral palsy (McCarthy, 1999).
_ Pointers for Practice
DECISION-MAKING ABOUT TREATMENTS AND THERAPIES
• How has the
decision been made that this therapy is appropriate for this child?
• Can the
decision wait until the child is of an age and understanding to be consulted?
• What can the
child and family expect to gain or lose from the treatment?
• How long has
the approach been used?
• What research
is available on the treatment? What alternative interventions might
be tried?
• Have the
parents and/or the child had the opportunity to talk with others who have
direct experience of the treatment?
81
Issues of consent
3.43 In the light of the above, issues of consent are crucial. As noted
in Volume 4 of the
Guidance to the Children Act 1989 (Department of Health, 1991), disabled
children’s ‘ability to give consent or refusal to any action, including
assessment,
examination or treatment is only limited by the general conditions
relating to
sufficient understanding which apply to other children under the
Children Act’
(p.14).
3.44 When children have learning or communication impairments it can be
more difficult
for professionals to address questions of consent, but it is arguably
even more
important that they do so. If a child resists or is distressed by a
treatment or therapy, it
is essential that treatment is reviewed urgently taking into account the
child’s
perspective (for further discussion of consent to treatment and disabled
children see
Alderson, 1993; Chailey Heritage, 1997).
Basic health care
3.45 Although disabled children generally have more contact with the
medical world than
other children, they may have more difficulty than non-disabled children
in getting
their basic healthcare needs met.
3.46 Disabled children can face barriers in accessing routine dental,
optical, GP or hospital
care. These barriers may include inaccessibility of buildings,
inflexibility of systems, or
attitudes of professionals. For example, one parent of a nine year old
disabled boy
commented:
I just can’t take him to the surgery any more. He doesn’t understand
about waiting and
he never sits down. The receptionists freeze if we walk in the door.
Basically we wait until
things are bad enough to call someone out or to go to the hospital (Personal communication).
3.47 Discriminatory practice may need to be challenged: Disabled
children may be given
lower priority for scarce or expensive resources (Rutter and Seyman,
1999).
_ Pointers for Practice
HEALTH
• Is the child
getting access to basic health care?
• If not, what
are the barriers?
• Is the child
getting access to appropriate healthcare and treatment to maximise his or
her quality of life?
• How does the
child experience treatment or therapy?
• Are decisions
about treatment and therapy being made on the basis of clear
information?
• Has the child
been consulted, and the child’s views taken into account?
• If a child has
been judged unable to give or withhold informed consent and is
resisting treatment, is this being acknowledged and
addressed?
82
• Does treatment
or therapy disrupt the meeting of needs that the child shares with all
children (for example, family life, friends, play)?
• Does treatment
or therapy lead to unnecessary segregation or exclusion?
• If yes, can the
treatment or therapy be managed differently, or are there other ways
of helping the child?
Education
3.48 Education is a key service for all children. Disabled children have
the same entitlement
to education as their peers. The Framework for the Assessment of
Children in Need and
their Families (Department of Health et al, 2000)
emphasises the importance of taking
‘account of a child’s starting point and any special educational needs’
(page 19).
3.49 Education legislation does not distinguish between disability and
special educational
needs. Under the Education Act 1996 a child is said to have special
educational needs
if (s)he has ‘a learning difficulty which calls for special educational
provisional to be
made for him’, and a child has a learning difficulty if:
83
a. he has a significantly greater difficulty in
learning than the majority of children
his age,
b. he has a disability which either prevents or
hinders him from making use of
educational facilities of a kind generally provided
for children of his age.
Education Act 1996
3.50 Thus not all children with special educational needs are disabled,
and some disabled
children do not have special educational needs. However, there is
significant overlap
between the two groups.
3.51 The Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of
Special Educational Needs
(1994) and the Education Act 1996 set out the arrangements by
which a child’s special
educational needs are identified, assessed and any appropriate provision
made. Key
principles of the Code of Practice are that:
_ all
children should have the greatest possible access to a broad and balanced
education.
_ all
special educational needs must be addressed.
_ children
should be educated within mainstream schools wherever possible.
_ active
partnership between children, their parents, schools, LEAs and health and
social services is essential in order to meet children’s special
educational needs.
3.52 Education policy and guidance thus ‘confirm and amplify the key
messages of the
Children Act 1989’, including the right of children to be heard in the
assessment of
their educational needs (Russell 1996, p.135).
3.53 Social services can play an important role in a Special Educational
Needs assessment.
They can ensure that parents have accurate information on assessment
arrangements
and local provision, and that the whole range of options is explained to
the child and
parents. They can provide an advocacy role for vulnerable children and
families,
including looked after children. They can facilitate integrated planning
across
agencies for the transition to adulthood.
_ Pointers for Practice
EDUCATION
• Are the child’s
educational needs being addressed?
• Are there
barriers preventing the child accessing appropriate education?
• Is information
being shared appropriately between agencies?
• Do parents and
children have access to information about local provision?
• Are services
from education co-ordinated and complementary to services from other
agencies?
Emotional and Behavioural Development
3.54 Disabled children and young people need to complete the same tasks
of emotional
development as all children: early attachments are just as important for
disabled babies
and children, and the development of relationships, self-confidence and
sexuality are
just as important for young disabled people. Disabled children and young
people may
need additional emotional support for all the same reasons as other
children and
young people: for example because of disruption of family relationships;
loss;
academic stress; serious illness; bullying or racism. Some Child and
Adolescent
Mental Health Services include staff, for example clinical
psychologists, who have
developed specific expertise in meeting the mental health needs of
disabled children.
Some counsellors have also developed expertise in this area (eg. see
Brearley, 1997).
3.55 Some disabled children and young people thrive emotionally; others
do not do well.
The increased emphasis on listening to children should help
practitioners better
understand the emotional needs of disabled children at different stages
in their lives.
3.56 Disabled children and young people may also need support with both
the direct
impact of their impairments and their experiences of prejudice and
oppressive
attitudes. It is important that such support is provided in ways that do
not pathologise
the child. Support from family, friends and professionals should not
deny a child’s
experience of prejudice. Disabled young people and disabled adults may
also be
valuable sources of emotional support and understanding.
3.57 Disabled young people can face particular challenges during
adolescence and the
transition to adulthood (Hurst and Baldwin, 1994; Morris,1999c). Some of
this is
84
exacerbated by transitions between childhood and adult services.
Sometimes different
services have different ages at which this transition is deemed to take
place.
Rebecca’s gap year before university was full of exciting opportunities,
but Sam’s gap year
is remembered as the year everything ground to a halt (Parent of disabled young adult,
personal communication).
3.58 Recent publications clarify good practice in services involved in
transition (Morris,
1999c; Department for Education & Employment, 1997). Choice,
control,
entitlement, consultation, involvement and inclusion are key themes.
3.59 Young disabled people from black and minority ethnic communities
often face
additional problems in their transition to adulthood. Services tend to
be run by white
people; insufficient account may be taken of the different meaning of
adolescence in
different cultures; young people who have spent time in residential
education may
have spent years with little or no contact with others from the same
cultural
background (Morris, 1999c).
3.60 At all ages, assessment of a child whose impairments have been
caused or exacerbated
by abuse raises particularly complex issues. The child’s knowledge of
the cause of their
condition should be approached with extreme caution. Such knowledge can
be truly
unbearable for children, and they may genuinely not know about the
abuse, even
though they have apparently been told.
_ Pointers for Practice
EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DEVELOPMENT
• Are there
concerns about the child’s emotional development?
• Can the child
access sources of emotional support available to all children?
• If not, can
disabling barriers be removed?
• Are appropriate
supports available for transition to adulthood?
• Is there a way
a disabled adult could help?
Identity
3.61 The Assessment Framework refers to the ‘strength of a positive
sense of individuality’.
Children’s life chances will be affected by their sense of their own
value and worth.
Developing a positive sense of identity is an important task of
childhood and
adolescence, no less so for disabled children and young people. It has
been noted that
disabled children are often defined within a one dimensional identity
that is largely
‘degendered, asexual, culturally unspecific and classless’ (Priestley,
1998, p.220). All
aspects of a child’s identity should be recognised, although different
aspects will
assume greater or lesser significance at different developmental stages.
3.62 Recognising disability as a positive identity is not easy in
contemporary society.
Disabled children growing up will receive negative messages about being
disabled, and
85
need a positive internal model of disabled identity to counteract
negative stereotypes.
Children can internalise the messages they receive about what it means
to have an
impairment. It can be difficult to develop a positive sense of identity
as a young
disabled person especially if services are entirely focused on changing
the child
through treatment, therapy, or other interventions. A child’s impairment
is an integral
part of identity, not something separate or incidental. It is, of
course, not the only
aspect of their identity but should be considered throughout any
assessment. It has
been suggested that an early acceptance of a child’s condition may be
important for the
development of a positive identity: ‘children should make their journeys
as
themselves’ (Middleton, 1999, p.129). We are also beginning to
understand the
importance of a family’s perception of disability on a child’s identity
development. As
an example, a differentiation needs to be made between deaf children in
deaf families
and deaf children of hearing parents. If deafness is considered normal,
its impact will
be different in comparison to a family where it may be viewed as a major
disabling
condition (Loosemore-Reppen, 1999).
3.63 There are strong parallels with issues for black children growing
up in a racist society.
There are also key differences. In terms of family context, black
children usually have
black families who can provide positive role models whereas disabled
children usually
have non-disabled parents. Many disabled children rarely meet disabled
adults and
may assume that they will somehow grow out of their impairments with
age. This is a
sensible assumption if one meets many disabled children and no disabled
adults.
3.64 The cultural identity of disabled children should be recognised.
Prejudice about race
and disability can compound each other. There is evidence that families
from minority
ethnic groups caring for a severely disabled child are even more
disadvantaged than
white families in similar situations (Chamba et al, 1999).
3.65 Although it is not possible for any one professional to be fully
knowledgeable about all
childhood impairments and all cultural contexts, it is possible to
demonstrate a
willingness to learn about a child’s individual needs and an openness
to, and respect
for, cultural differences. Of particular relevance when working with
disabled children
may be the cultural differences which exist within our society in
relation to concepts
such as dependence and independence. It is important to listen carefully
to children
and families’ views about those differences.
3.66 In all cultures, disabled children may be perceived and treated as
younger than their
actual age. This is particularly so for learning disabled children and
young people.
Linked to this, the sexual identity of disabled children is often widely
denied. Many
disabled young people have very low expectations of relationships:
I never dreamt that I’d get married and I certainly didn’t think that
I’d have children. It’s
something out of this world to me. Being disabled they made you feel as
though you had
no use in the world ... It made me feel I wasn’t whole, it made me feel
sort of not clean
enough to have children (Disabled woman in
Humphries and Gordon, 1992,
p.142).
3.67 There have been encouraging recent developments to ensure that
disabled children
have access to appropriate sex education (Adcock and Stanley, 1996;
Scott and Kerr-
Edwards, 1999).
86
_ Pointers for Practice
IDENTITY
• Is the child
recognised as a girl or boy, as part of a family and community, with a
definite cultural identity?
• Is the child
recognised and treated in ways appropriate to his or her age and stage of
development?
• Is the child’s
identity as a sexual being recognised in line with their age and
understanding?
• Does the child
have access to positive role models for all the different aspects of their
identity?
• What messages
is the child receiving about what it means to be disabled?
• Is the child
loved and valued as they are, or are they learning that they need to
change to be acceptable?
Family and Social relationships
3.68 The great majority of disabled children grow up within their
families and assessments
should identify and support the strengths of families. All children need
stable
and affectionate relationships with their parents or carers, and all
children need
friends.
3.69 Relationships between families of disabled children and social
services are often
dominated by arrangements to separate children from their families
through the
provision of respite care (Morris,1998b). All parents and children need
breaks from
each other, but natural breaks (playing out, visiting friends, joining
in organised
activities, staying with relatives) may be unavailable to disabled
children.
3.70 Defining the purpose of any service as respite can create a
confusing situation. The
child’s experience of the service can become incidental since its
defined purpose is to
give the child’s parents a break. A social model perspective is helpful
in identifying
children’s real needs, which often require seeking ways to overcome
disabling barriers
that prevent them accessing the social and leisure opportunities
available to their nondisabled
peers.
3.71 All children need friends, and disabled children can face
particular barriers in
establishing and maintaining friendships:
The disabled young people we interviewed more often led limited social
lives ... The
more severely disabled young people were least likely to have a wide
circle of friends,
close confidants or regular contact with their peers (Hurst and Baldwin,
1994,
p.86).
3.72 Not all disabled children live at home. It is difficult to estimate
how many live away
from home: one figure commonly cited is that around 46,000 disabled
children spend
87
some or all of their time in residential establishments (Russell, 1994).
Many of these
children maintain strong family and social relationships but it is
estimated that ‘well
over 4,000 disabled children and young people … are living away from
home, isolated
from their families, and with little or no contact with people outside
their schools,
foster or residential homes and a circle of busy professionals’ (Knight,
1998, p.58). An
assessment should consider the requirement under the Children Act 1989
to appoint
independent visitors for such isolated young people.
3.73 The continuation of relationships is important for all disabled
children, particularly
those who spend time away from their families, and have communication or
learning
impairments. If children do not read or write or use the telephone,
other ways of
staying in touch are necessary, for example photos, cassettes of voices,
familiar sounds
or music, videos, treasured belongings, objects of reference, life story
books and things
that smell like, taste like, or feel like home.
_ Pointers for Practice
FAMILY AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
• Does the child
belong within a family and community?
• Does the child
have secure and stable attachments?
• Does the child
have friends and are their friendships valued and supported?
• Should the
child have the option of an independent visitor or other advocacy
arrangement?
• Are the child’s
relationships within their family actively supported?
• Is the child’s
access to education, play or family life restricted by lack of support with
their communication needs?
Social Presentation
3.74 This dimension requires particular attention because disabled
children and their
families may experience pressure to deny or minimise or hide their
impairments. ‘The
pressure to appear “normal” … can give rise to enormous inefficiency and
stress, yet
many disabled people are well into adulthood before they abandon such
attempts’
(French,1993, p.46).
3.75 Denying one’s situation and pretending to be ‘normal’ can be both
exhausting and
emotionally costly for children:
...having adults pretend that I could see more than I could, and having
to acquiesce in
the pretence, was a theme throughout my childhood ... as well as denying
the reality of
their disabilities, disabled children are frequently forced to deny
painful feelings
associated with their experiences because their parents and other adults
simply cannot
cope with them ... (French, 1993, p.69).
88
_ Pointers for Practice
SOCIAL PRESENTATION
• Is the child
supported to present themselves confidently, without denying or hiding
impairments?
• Is the child
helped to exercise choice about social presentation?
Selfcare Skills
3.76 Selfcare and independence can be a major focus of services for
disabled children.
Independence is often thought to be something that disabled children and
young
people and indeed disabled adults desire above all else, yet ‘the notion
of independence
can be taken too far, restricting the lives of disabled people rather
than enriching them’
(French, 1993, p.44).
3.77 Selfcare skills should be related to children’s individual ability
and desire to contribute
to their care rather than be dictated by age. In assessments is
important to listen
carefully to children’s views about undertaking their own care:
Sammy was expected to spend around 90 minutes a day getting himself
dressed and
undressed, tasks which are very difficult because of his physical
impairments. Sammy was
given an opportunity to express his views about this routine and he
communicated very
strongly that he would rather spend that time reading or using his
computer. As a result
Sammy’s routine was changed.
Karen wanted to learn how to transfer from her wheelchair to a bath or
bed. This proved
a difficult skill that took some months for her to gain. She describes
the impact of this one
skill on her life as ‘huge’ and is very pleased she had the opportunity
to learn how to do it.
3.78 Children’s own priorities will vary and are likely to change over
time. It is important
also to be sensitive to fluctuations in children’s abilities; tiredness,
distress, illness or an
unfamiliar environment can temporarily wipe out a skill.
_ Pointers for Practice
SELF-CARE SKILLS
• Are the child’s
priorities in terms of self-care taken into account?
• Where the child
receives personal care from others, is this undertaken respectfully?
• Are procedures
explained to children before they occur?
Domain: Parenting Capacity
Critically important to a child’s health and development is the ability
of parents or
caregivers to ensure that the child’s developmental needs are being
appropriately
89
and adequately responded to, and to adapt to his or her changing needs
over time
(Department of Health et al, 2000, paragraph 2.9).
3.79 The concept of reasonable parental care can be particularly
challenging where a child
is disabled. Some children need more parenting or more skilled parenting
than others;
some children need intensive parenting for much longer than others. Some
children
are parented in a far less supportive social context than others, and a
consideration of
the supports available to parents in responding to their child’s needs
is important (see
next Domain). Some families have more than one disabled child which
affects
parenting capacity (Lawton, 1998).
3.80 Parenting a disabled child can be very demanding, both because of
the child’s
impairments and because of the time and energy which have to be devoted
to securing
services to respond to the child’s needs. When children have very
complex needs and
the demands on parents are heavy, there can be lower expectations of
what constitutes
reasonable parental care. Professionals may understandably think that
parents do very
well considering how little help they get and thus expectations of the
standard of care
which a disabled child should enjoy are lowered.
3.81 A clear value base at an individual and organisational level is
essential for practitioners.
The explicit commitment to equality of opportunity within the Assessment
Framework should prove helpful in clarifying standards and expectations
for disabled
children.
_ Pointers for Practice
PARENTING CAPACITY
• What supports
are available to the help the family parent their disabled child?
• What is
understood as constituting reasonable parental care given to this child?
• Are the
standards for assessment of parenting capacity clear?
Basic Care
3.82 A disabled child’s care needs might be more complex, take more
time, or continue for
more of their childhood, but basic care remains a right of all children.
3.83 A child’s care needs can create barriers in their lives unless
appropriate support is
available; schools can be reluctant to give medication, playgroups may
insist that
children are out of nappies. Even services specifically for disabled
children may
exclude children with certain care needs, for example children who
require tube
feeding (see Townsley and Robinson, 1999). There may also be
disagreements about
whether basic care constitutes nursing or social care or is part of
their education (and
therefore which agency should pay). Identifying these barriers and
finding ways to
address them is an appropriate focus of assessment.
90
_ Pointers for Practice
BASIC CARE
• Are the child’s
basic care needs adequately responded to?
• If the child
requires additional support, is this provided in ways that are both
respectful of the child and sustainable in the long
term?
• Is the child’s
access to education, play or family life restricted by lack of support with
care needs?
Emotional Warmth
3.84 ‘Ensuring the child’s emotional needs are met and giving the child
a sense of being
specially valued’ (Department of Health et al, 2000, page 21) is
important for all
children, but may be particularly crucial for disabled children who,
given the societal
context, are likely to receive negative messages about their personal
value.
_ Pointers for Practice
EMOTIONAL WARMTH
• Does the child
experience warmth and affection from parents and/or caregivers?
• Does the child
have secure, stable and affectionate relationships?
Ensuring Safety
3.85 Disabled children are particularly vulnerable and face an increased
risk of suffering
abuse in many settings (Westcott and Jones, 1999). They ought to be
over-represented
in our child protection systems, yet research suggests that they may be
significantly
under-represented (Morris, 1998b; 1999a). The mistaken assumption that
disability
protects from abuse contributes to the vulnerability of disabled
children.
3.86 The increased vulnerability of disabled children to abuse results
from social attitudes
and the special treatment of disabled children; for example, disabled
children tend to
be more isolated, to be more dependent, to have less control over their
lives and their
bodies, and may be less likely to be heard or believed. Disabled
children are often in
the care of many more adults than other children, they are more likely
to spend time in
institutional settings and the usual safeguards may not be in place
(Morris, 1998b;
Utting, 1997).
3.87 Possible indicators of abuse or significant harm may prove
difficult to disentangle
from the effects of a child’s impairment. A multi-disciplinary approach
is essential
(Department of Health et al, 1999).
A seven year old boy’s constant masturbation was ‘explained’ by his
autism and his
attempts to touch adults sexually were initially attributed to his
confusion about
91
boundaries. Several years later his father was convicted of sexual
assault of all three
children in the family.
Severe self-injurious behaviour from a three year old was thought to be
indicative of
experience of violence at home, although there were no other indicators.
As part of the
assessment a second medical opinion was sought and the child was found
to have a rare
chromosomal disorder linked to self-injury and aggression.
Extensive bruising to the face, chest and arms of an eleven year old was
said to result from
falls during epileptic seizures. Medical advice was that the bruising
was incompatible
with falling and child protection procedures were initiated.
3.88 Possible indicators may even be perceived as safeguards against
abuse:
Concerns were raised about the possible sexual abuse of a six year old
girl with learning
disabilities. School and residential staff felt she could not be abused
because she resisted
nappy changing with such violence.
3.89 Assessments should consider the safety of the different settings in
a child’s life. There is
some evidence that institutional care should be considered a risk factor
in itself
(Westcott, 1994). This information is relevant for many disabled
children. For further
discussion of safeguarding disabled children in institutions see
Marchant and Cross
(1993).
3.90 Munchausen syndrome by proxy is a very rare form of child abuse,
and the possible
links with childhood impairment are not yet fully understood. However,
one possible
consequence of repeatedly inducing illness in a child is long-term
impairment.
Preverbal children have been found to be at highest risk of induced
illness (Schreiber
and Libow, 1993) and anecdotal evidence suggests an increased incidence
among
disabled children (see Meadow, 1999; Precey, 1998).
3.91 There are welcome developments both in approaches for safety skills
training specifically
relevant for disabled children (Briggs, 1995; Kennedy, 1993a; 1993b; Lee
et al,
1998; Marchant, 1998) and in approaches to making s47 enquiries
regarding the
possible abuse of children whose impairments affect their communication
(Marchant
and Page, 1993; 1997; Aldridge and Wood, 1998; 1999).
_ Pointers for Practice
ENSURING SAFETY
• Are key adults
in the child’s life aware of the increased vulnerability of disabled
children to being abused?
• Are standards
for safeguards within services in place and regularly monitored?
• Can the child
access the safety channels that exist for all children (e.g. helplines,
complaints procedures, advocacy services)?
• If not, what
alternative safeguards can be put in place?
• Have any
concerns about possible significant harm been carefully considered and the
subject of appropriate enquiries?
92
Stimulation
3.92 All children need levels of stimulation appropriate to their stage
of development and
sensitive to their individual needs. Ideas, resources and support may be
required to
help parents of disabled children (especially children with multiple
impairments or
dual sensory impairments) to find appropriate ways to stimulate their
child. On the
other hand, parents may feel exceptional pressure to provide
stimulation:
I found that you just do everything. Everything that came: “Yes, she’ll
do that, oh yes, we’ll
go to that, yes, we’ll do that”. I tried to carry on doing everything
and then I couldn’t
manage really. But then it needed someone else to come in and say “Its
alright, actually,
you don’t have to do all these things, and Alex will be perfectly fine
if she doesn’t do these
things”. I felt she needed so much input (Parent
of disabled girl in aMaze, 1997, p.26).
3.93 It may be an appropriate assessment task to help parents explore
their child’s need for
stimulation and the connections with their own feelings about their
child.
_ Pointers for Practice
STIMULATION
• Is the child
offered stimulation appropriate to their needs?
• Are parents
able to access resources and ideas where needed?
• Does the child
have access to recreation and leisure opportunities that provide
stimulation?
Guidance and Boundaries
3.94 All children need guidance and boundaries. Parenting disabled
children can raise
additional dilemmas when making decisions about reasonable risks. The
dilemmas
facing all parents may be magnified and assessments may encounter
extremes of both
over and under protection. Some parents of disabled children may need
help to
recognise that their child requires additional support or protection.
Other parents
need support and sometimes permission to let their disabled child take
risks in their
everyday lives.
3.95 Involving disabled adults in these discussions can be valuable:
Recently I was talking to a man with cerebral palsy and he was saying
‘Let her do things,
if people want to do things with her, let her do it. OK if she breaks an
arm, she breaks an
arm, but other children break arms you know. Just let her be a child (Parent of disabled
girl, in Beresford, 1994).
3.96 Disabled children are also more likely to be perceived as having
challenging behaviour.
The context of their lives may affect others’ expectations: disabled
young people can
sometimes get away with less than others. It is useful to remind
ourselves that most
children and young people do not behave well all the time, they do not
do what they
are told immediately and without arguing, do not always go along with
all adult
suggestions, or do not always eat sensibly, get ready for school without
protest or go to
bed and get up again when asked.
93
3.97 That said, it seems that children with learning disabilities,
autism, or language delay
do face an increased risk of developing challenging behaviour. Physical
and sensory
impairments are also known to increase this likelihood. The increased
likelihood of
developing challenging behaviours is not necessarily a direct result of
these
impairments, but may be related to other factors.
3.98 Whatever the cause of a child’s behaviour, and sometimes this is
never absolutely clear,
assessments must address the appropriateness of adult responses.
Judgements about
what constitutes reasonable control for disabled children can be
particularly fraught.
In assessments where there are issues around control of a child’s
behaviour, clear
principles become essential (see also Mental Health Foundation (1997)).
_ Pointers for Practice
GUIDANCE AND BOUNDARIES
• Is the child supported
to take reasonable risks in everyday life?
• Are parents
supported to enable children to take reasonable risks in everyday life?
• Are boundaries
appropriate for the child’s age and understanding?
• Do boundaries
change over time as the child grows and develops?
• Is the child’s
welfare the paramount consideration?
• Are responses
to a child’s behaviour based on a consideration of what is in that child’s
best interests and what they would recognise
themselves as being in their own
interests, were they of the age and capacity to make
such decisions themselves?
• Are restrictive
measures adopted to deal with severe challenging behaviour only
when there is no alternative?
• Are they used
in the least detrimental manner and for the shortest possible time?
• Are measures of
control part of a plan with long term strategies to meet the child’s
needs and encourage other behaviours?
• Have approaches
been discussed by the parents, professionals and carers involved?
Points 5 – 10 are adapted from Lyons (1994)
Stability
3.99 All children require stability in their lives. This does not mean
absolute consistency.
Most parents have breaks from their children, but these usually involve
the child
spending time in natural settings and with familiar people (friends,
family). Disabled
children may be unable to access these natural breaks and instead might
be offered
segregated services. Disabled children’s patterns of care should offer
stability
appropriate to their age and understanding. They are more likely to face
discontinuity
in the short term (sleeping in several different places in one week) or
in the long term
(multiple changes of carers or of settings).
94
_ Pointers for Practice
STABILITY
• How many adults
are involved in this child’s life?
• Do they change
frequently? Are there long term, secure attachment figures for the
child?
• How many adults
take care of this child?
• How many adults
take intimate care of this child?
• How many
different places or settings does this child sleep in?
• Is the care
provided in different settings consistent?
• Is the care
well planned and is the child properly prepared for breaks?
Domain: Family And Environmental Factors
3.100 Parents’ basic needs are the same whether or not their child is
disabled. They need to
feel supported, have breaks, feel valued and to have a family routine
where they feel a
sense of control. They benefit from professionals who respect them, and
value and
want the best for their child.
3.101 A wide range of factors can either help or hinder a family’s
functioning. The
Assessment Framework acknowledges the inter-linking of different
problems facing
families. For families of disabled children this is a particularly
important issue. Having
a disabled child can impact on a family in many different ways. The
direct effects of the
child’s impairment are likely to be compounded by disabling barriers
facing both the
child and the family.
3.102 These disabling barriers may be particularly daunting for families
of disabled children
who are otherwise at risk of social exclusion, for example because of
their position in
society, their family structure, their ethnic background, or their
income.
3.103 Careful consideration of the supports available to parents in
responding to their
disabled child’s needs is important. Many families make huge adjustments
to respond
to the needs of their children. Supports available to most parents are
often less
available to parents of disabled children. Baby-sitting and other
informal supports
may be much harder to find. Mainstream services (family centres,
playgroups,
nurseries) are often less accessible to families with disabled children.
Living in a world
that may relentlessly reject your child has an impact on families.
_ Pointers for Practice
FAMILY AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• What factors
help or hinder this family’s functioning?
• What disabling
barriers face this family?
95
• What supports
are available to this family in responding to the needs of their
disabled child?
Family History and Functioning
3.104 Exploration of the child’s place within the family is important
for disabled children as
for all children. Relationships with parents and siblings require the
same attention, as
do parental strengths and difficulties. The birth of a child with some
form of
impairment, or the experience of a child acquiring an impairment is
usually a
significant life event, often perceived to disrupt family expectations
for the future. The
meaning that the impairment will hold for a family, and the family’s
response to such
an event will depend on a range of factors. Exploring how a family has
coped with
other major life events may assist in placing responses in context.
3.105 Beresford (1994; 1995) emphasises the importance of defining parents
as ‘active
agents’ rather than ‘passive recipients’, thus acknowledging that they
actively seek to
manage the stresses and strains of caring for their disabled child.
Services should seek
to build on parents’ strengths, and since parents cope in very different
ways an
approach sensitive to individual difference is necessary. There is good
evidence that
parents value highly assessments which take full account of their
knowledge,
understanding and aspirations for the future.
3.106 The siblings of disabled children have often been invisible to
professional eyes. An
assessment of a disabled child and their family should recognise the
importance of
siblings in each others’ lives. Relationships between brothers and
sisters should be
valued and encouraged, including relationships where one or both
children are
disabled. It is essential to approach sibling relationships on an
individual basis: it
cannot be assumed that undertaking some caring responsibilities is
harmful to
siblings. The views of siblings about their relationships with each
other may be an
important part of the assessment.
_ Pointers for Practice
FAMILY HISTORY AND FUNCTIONING
• How does this
family generally cope with major life events?
• What place does
the disabled child have within the family?
• What supports
are available to this family?
• What are the
effects on the siblings of the disabled child or children?
• Does any child
undertake caring responsibilities for a disabled sibling which may be
detrimental to his or her own development?
Wider Family
3.107 The Assessment Framework stresses that ‘Account must be taken of
the diversity of
family styles and structures, particularly who counts as a family and
who is important
to the child’ (Department of Health et al, 2000, paragraph 2.15).
96
3.108 Like all children, disabled children will vary in the significance
they attach to their
wider family. Relationships with siblings, grandparents, other
relatives, friends and
neighbours may be crucial at different stages in a child’s life. Wider
family support is
also important to parents: those who receive a lot of help from their
extended family
tend to report fewer unmet needs (Chamba et al, 1999). The assessment
should
therefore consider any potential within the wider family for increased
support. There
is some evidence that divorce is more likely in families with disabled
children and so
the assessment should include sensitive enquiries into ways in which an
absent parent
might be able to promote the child’s welfare.
3.109 An important group of people for many disabled children are those
who are paid to
provide support to the child or who have been in the past, for example,
teachers,
carers, and outreach workers. A significant proportion of adults who
provide family
based care for disabled children have previously worked with disabled
children in
general or with the particular child they later care for.
3.110 Recent research found no evidence to substantiate the stereotype
of extended
supportive families among minority ethnic groups. Families’ experiences,
needs and
circumstances vary across ethnic groups: Indian and Black African
Caribbean families
reported least support from their extended family, with levels of
support lower than
that found among the survey of white families. The most cited reason for
lack of
support was that no family members lived nearby (Chamba et al, 1999). In
the same
study, some Asian parents expressed the belief that they should bear
full responsibility
for their child and this prevented them from asking for help from their
extended
family.
_ Pointers for Practice
WIDER FAMILY
• Who are the
important people in this child’s life?
• How are these
relationships supported and preserved?
• Has the
potential to offer support within the wider family (including any absent
parents) been fully considered?
Housing
The provision of appropriate housing can make an important contribution
to
meeting the health and developmental needs of children (Department of
Health et
al, 2000, paragraph 5.71).
3.111 Inadequate housing is a frequent barrier affecting families with
children with a wide
range of impairments, not just physical or mobility impairments. Housing
that is
unsuitable for a disabled child affects the whole family, by making it
difficult or
impossible for children to enjoy normal – even essential – childhood
experiences.
3.112 For the disabled child, unsuitable housing can make moving around
the house,
playing, contributing to family life and learning to look after themselves
much harder.
97
3.113 Issues raised in recent research include the general quality of
housing; the amount of
space; safety and access problems linked to location rather than to
actual buildings
(Beresford, 1994; Oldman and Beresford, 1998).
3.114 Oldsman and Beresford (1999) found that three out of four families
reported one
or more ways in which their housing was unsuitable; four out of ten
reported than
their housing was poor overall; and families with disabled children were
more likely to
live in rented housing on low incomes than families with non-disabled
children.
Families with disabled children often move for reasons associated with
the child’s
impairment.
3.115 When houses are well adapted for a particular child, the family’s
life can be
transformed:
If you can get your home right you can cope … within 24 hours of being
in this house ...
she was a different child! (Parent quoted in Oldman
and Beresford, 1999).
3.116 Shortcomings in housing are likely to lead to demands for other
services, for example
short term breaks or help with lifting a child. This can both undermine
a family’s wish
for independence and lead to a waste of limited public funds.
_ Pointers for Practice
HOUSING
• Does the
child’s accommodation have basic amenities and facilities appropriate to
the child’s needs?
• Are advice and
resources available to make the necessary adaptations?
Employment
3.117 This dimension includes patterns of employment and impact of work
on the child.
We know that parents of disabled children face additional barriers to
employment:
very few mothers with a disabled child work outside the home – about 2%
work full
time compared with 23% of the general population of mothers with
children
(Lawton,1998). There are particularly low levels of employment among
minority
ethnic families with disabled children (Chamba et al, 1999) and among
parents of
more than one disabled child (Tozer, 1999).
3.118 Parents believe that employment has economic, social and
psychological benefits for
them and for their children, and assessments may helpfully explore
barriers to
employment with parents who wish to work.
3.119 This dimension also includes children’s experience of work and its
impact on them. It
is important for disabled children to be aware of the world of work and
if possible to
see disabled adults in employment.
98
_ Pointers for Practice
EMPLOYMENT
• Are there
barriers to employment if parents wish to work?
• Is accessible,
adequate child care available?
• Do disabled
young people have appropriate opportunities to experience work
situations?
Income
3.120 This dimension is about the sufficiency of income to meet the
family’s needs. Families
are financially disadvantaged by having a disabled child, and it has been
estimated that
it costs on average three times more to bring up a severely disabled
child than a nondisabled
child (Dobson and Middleton, 1999). The same study found that younger
disabled children are especially disadvantaged because the benefit system
assumes
lower costs for younger children, which is often not the case. Parents
attempt to
minimise the gap between their income and their spending by going into
debt,
spending less on themselves and other family members, and altering their
lifestyles
and aspirations.
3.121 Applying for financial help is a difficult process with an
inherent tension: on the one
hand parents are encouraged to promote their child’s development but, on
the other
hand financial support and access to some services rests on levels of
dependency.
Applying for financial help can be emotionally difficult for parents:
I can’t bear to do the DLA forms, its so painful to have to think about
what she can’t do
and maybe will never do (Parent of disabled
girl, personal communication).
For these reasons the assessment should ensure that families are
receiving the benefits
to which they are entitled and are referred, if appropriate, to the
Family Fund Trust.
3.122 Additionally, parents in a number of studies report difficulty in
finding out about and
claiming benefits (Kagan et al, 1998; Lawton, 1998; Dobson and
Middleton, 1999).
Minority ethnic group families were less likely to receive benefits and
less likely to be
awarded benefits at the higher rates than white families. Parents who
understood
English well had much higher levels of benefit take-up than those with
little or no
understanding of English (Chamba et al, 1999).
_ Pointers for Practice
INCOME
• Are parents and
young people clear about their financial entitlements?
• Is support
available with applications for benefits?
• Is information
about benefits accessible to all families?
99
• Have the
cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the families been fully taken into
account?
• Are working
parents of disabled children aware of their entitlement to benefits?
Family’s Social Integration
3.123 Assessments should consider the wider social context and a
family’s social integration
or isolation. Families of disabled children can face barriers to social
integration, which
may be physical, financial or attitudinal.
3.124 Relationships with other families are an important part of life.
Disabled children and
their families may face barriers preventing them from taking part in
social events or
cultural or religious celebrations or holidays. Providing the
appropriate form of
support may enable disabled children to join with their families in such
events, and on
a more day to day basis may enable children to go to their local
playgroup, park,
school, church, swimming pool or youth club, or to visit friends of the
family or
relatives. Supporting the social integration of disabled children often
facilitates the
integration of their parents, who gain opportunities to meet local
parents at the school
gate, local members of their religious community, workers in local
services and so on.
Many families welcome introductions to support groups as a means of
reducing social
isolation, and gaining useful information and valued support.
_ Pointers for Practice
FAMILY’S SOCIAL INTEGRATION
• Does the family
face barriers to their social integration?
• Can supports be
provided to facilitate the child and family’s integration?
Community Resources
3.125 This dimension includes the availability and accessibility of
local resources to children
and families. Assessments should consider barriers to the disabled
child’s use of
community resources:
Disabled children have the human right to take part in play and leisure
activities
and to freely express themselves in cultural and artistic ways. They have
the right to
equal access to cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure activities
(Morris, 1998c,
p.20).
Assessments should therefore focus on disabled children’s needs for
support to enable
them to access leisure, recreation and play activities. The Disability
Discrimination
Act 1995 should result in a wide range of resources being more
accessible to disabled
children.
3.126 The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 has put those who provide
services to the
public (eg shops, banks, leisure facilities, as well as health and
social services
100
101
themselves) under new duties to make their services more accessible to
disabled
people. Since 1996, it is has generally been illegal for service
providers to discriminate
against disabled people by refusing to provide them with a service on
the same terms as
are available to the public generally. Since October 1999 service
providers have been
required to take “reasonable steps” to make their services accessible to
disabled people
who would otherwise find them impossible or unreasonably difficult to
access.
(Further information about the Disability Discrimination Act’s
requirements of
service providers, including the Code of Practice on access to goods and
services, is
available on the Government’s disability website
http://www.disability.gov.uk). These
duties should make it easier for disabled children to access mainstream
services: they
do not, however, remove the need for social services to continue to
provide special
support where services would otherwise be inaccessible.
3.127 Disabled adults are also a potentially valuable community resource
for disabled
children and their families. The disabled people’s movement is paying
increasing
attention to children’s issues (see Cross, 1998; Morris, 1998c;
Shakespeare and
Watson, 1998).
I learn more from them (disabled adults) than I can learn from anybody,
about what
their childhoods were like… (Parent
quoted in Beresford, 1994).
_ Pointers for Practice
COMMUNITY RESOURCES
• Is the child
linked into their community resources?
• Can they and do
they make use of community resources?
• What steps are
being taken to overcome barriers to inclusion?
Involving children in the assessment process
3.128 Involving disabled children and young people in assessments has a
value in its own
right, quite apart from the improved quality of assessment that is
likely to result in. It
demonstrates to children and others a respect and valuing of the child
as a person.
3.129 Workers may face a number of barriers when involving disabled
children in
assessments. This final section is designed to address some of these in
very practical
ways.
3.130 Others may not expect this to happen. Be clear from the
start that you want to involve
children in the assessment. Others may not expect it to happen: parents,
children and
other workers may be surprised as the child may not previously have been
consulted.
Children may also be unused to participation. Actively involving
children in decision
making may be threatening for parents – many families do not routinely
involve
children, disabled or not, in family decisions. Prepare parents and
attend to their
concerns.
3.131 Workers may not feel confident about their own skills. Social
workers who are
generally good at communicating with children are likely also to be good
at communicating
with disabled children, but may need encouragement and support to adapt
their skills and try out new approaches. General listening and
communications skills
are usually more useful than attempting to become competent in a wide
range of
communication methods.
3.132 Develop a broad and flexible definition of communication. Involving
children with
communication impairments in meaningful ways requires us to broaden our
definition of communication and to be willing to try new approaches
(Marchant and
Martyn, 1999). Individualised, responsive ways of working are essential.
3.133 We often act as if speaking is the only valid way to communicate
and yet we know that
this is rarely the case for any child. Total communication means tuning
in on all
channels, attending for example: to speech; sign; symbols; body
language; facial
expression; gesture; behaviour; art; photographs; objects of reference;
games; drawing
and playing.
3.134 Recent work suggests innovative ways to engage with and consult
disabled children
(Beresford, 1997; Sanderson et al, 1997; Ward, 1997; Beecher, 1998;
Morris, 1998d;
Russell, 1998; Griffiths et al, 1999; Kirkbride, 1999; Marchant et al,
1999; Morris,
1999b; Prewett, 1999). Being alongside children – endeavouring to
observe their
world from their point of view – can be a potent assessment tool.
3.135 Standard assessment approaches may not work. One parent
arrived at her son’s
annual review with a blank, chewed copy of the form she had been sent to
record his
views. She wrote to social services:
I have no problem with you consulting my child. In fact I would like to
know how to do
so myself. But sending him this questionnaire is just bizarre. I showed
him the form and
he tried to eat it (Parent of 13 year old boy with severe
learning disabilities and
autism, personal communication).
3.136 Involve others who can support communication with the child. Find
out about the
child’s communication from the child and from others who know the child
well. If
possible, ask the child whom to approach. Sometimes communication with a
child
will need the help of a third party. Independent interpreters are often
not available for
children with complex needs, whose communication methods may be very
idiosyncratic.
The ideal is someone who knows the child well, is trusted by the child
and is as
neutral as possible about the assessment.
Paul is 9 and communicates using eye pointing on a personalised
communication board
of words and symbols. He spends his time at residential school and in
foster care. His
social worker finds out who can communicate well with him, and offers
Paul a choice of
three people to help her involve him in the assessment process.
This gives Paul control within safe boundaries.
3.137 If parents or others are to be directly involved negotiate
clear ground rules at the
start. Sometimes establishing direct
communication with a child is far easier than
anticipated:
Janice is 13 and communicates with gestures, signs and some words
although her speech
is difficult to understand. Her social worker spent time with her at
home and at school.
She and Janice became more confident in each others’ presence and after
two visits were
able to communicate directly with each other without any help.
102
3.138 Be responsive and flexible. The following are suggestions
for practitioners about how
to be responsive to the needs and views of each child:
_ make
approaches to the young people responsive and individualised;
_ where
appropriate, encourage or allow young people to do other things at the same
time as communicating (playing, drawing, walking, eating or drinking);
_ take
interesting things in a bag or folder that you are willing to let the child
look
through;
_ have
lots of different ideas ready, and be prepared to abandon them all;
_ be
non-directive, reflect back to young people what they have said, ask open
questions;
_ acknowledge
if things aren’t going well, say if you don’t understand, be willing to go
back to the beginning and start again;
_ listen
carefully to everything being communicated, especially where there is a
discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal messages;
_ don’t
make assumptions, keep an open mind, check back;
_ let
it take time, go at the young person’s pace, be willing to wait, be willing to
take a
break, to stop and try again.
Conclusion
3.139 It is an exciting time to be involved in assessment work with disabled
children:
knowledge and resources are developing rapidly and our understanding of
what it
means to be disabled are being challenged. Assessment represents a
powerful force for
change.
3.140 The basic needs of disabled children and their families are no
different to those of any
other child and family. Those involved in assessments must bear in mind
the context,
and be both aware of and prepared to challenge disabling barriers in a
child’s life.
Inclusive practice has benefits beyond the effects for individual
children and families.
Getting assessments right for children with the most complex needs will
improve
practice with all children.
Everybody’s got something different about them, and somethings are just
more different
than others. But we’re all – I don’t know – different in different ways (Disabled girl of
12, quoted in Cavet, 1999, p.91).
103
Children Act 1989
In section 17 of the Children Act 1989 a child is defined as in need if:
a) he is unlikely to achieve or maintain, or to have the opportunity of
achieving or
maintaining a reasonable standard of health or development without the
provision for
him of services by a local under this [Part] of the Act.
b) his health or development is likely to be significantly impaired, or
further impaired,
without the provision for him of such services or
c) he is disabled.
‘Development’ means physical, intellectual, emotional, social or
behavioural
development and
‘health’ means physical or mental health.
The Children Act mirrors the National Assistance 1948 definition of
disability, which
states that:
A child is disabled if he is blind, deaf or dumb or suffers from mental
disorder of any kind
or is substantially and permanently handicapped by illness, injury or
congenital
deformity or such other disability as may be prescribed.
World Health Organisation
There have been ongoing debates in the United Kingdom and elsewhere
about
definitions of disability. The World Health Organisation defines
disability under four
key headings, namely:
a) A disorder: a medically definable condition such as spina bifida;
b) An impairment: any loss or abnormality of physiological,
psychological or
anatomical function or structure (eg paraplegia);
c) A disability: any restriction or loss arising from an impairment, of
the ability to carry
out an activity in a way or within the range of that would be considered
normal for
a person of a similar age (eg the ability to walk);
104
APPENDIX 4
Definitions of Disability and Key Legislation
d) A handicap: the impact of the impairment or disability upon the
individual’s
pursuit or achievement of the goals which he/she wishes or expects, or
which may
be desired or expected by him/her or by society (eg. The inability to
undertake
particular forms of employment or to live independently).
The World Health Organisation definitions are currently under review.
Disability Discrimination Act 1995
The Disability Discrimination Act (1995)
defines a disabled person as someone who
has:
A physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term
adverse effects
on his ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities.
The Disability Rights Task Force (1999)
identified a number of weaknesses within the
DDA definition of disability and its interpretation. It has therefore
recommended that
the Disability Rights Commission, when established, should further
review and
consult on the question of definitions of disability.
Disabled People’s International
Organisations of disabled people have become increasingly concerned at
the impact of
negative definitions of disability, arguing that the social model of
disability should be
adopted in place of a model based upon deficits. The British Council of
Disabled
People has adopted Disabled People’s International’s definitions of
disability, namely
that:
Disability is the loss or limitation of the ability to take part in the
normal life of the
community on an equal level with others, due to physical and social barriers.
Education Act 1996
The majority of (although not all) children with disabilities will also
have special
educational needs. Section 316 of the Education Act 1996 defines
disability in the
context of special educational needs as follows:
Section 312(1)
A child has ‘special educational needs’ for the purposes of this Act fi
he has a learning
difficulty which calls for special education provision to be made for
him.
A child may be defined as having a learning difficulty calling for
special educational
provision if:
He has a disability which either prevents or hinders him from making use
of educational
facilities of a kind generally provided for children of his age in
schools within the area of
the local education authority.
Any assessment of a child with a disability should not only have regard
to definitions
of disability under the Children Act 1989 and the Disability
Discrimination Act 1995
(with reference to access to goods and services) but also consider the
implications of
the child’s disability for his educational development and progression.
105
Some Key Legislation Relevant to the Assessment of Disabled Children
The following legislation is of particular relevance to the assessment
of disabled
children:
The Carers (Representation and Services) Act 1995
The Carers’ Act makes provision for parents and carers (including young
carers) to
request independent assessments of their needs, when the child or adult
cared for is
undergoing as assessment under Section 47 of the NHS and Community Care
Act
1990, the Children Act 1989 or the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons
Act 1970.
The Children Act 1989
The Children Act 1989 brings together most public and private law
relating to
children in England and Wales. Section 17 clarifies the position of
children with
disabilities as children in need and therefore eligible for a
range of services and support
from the local authority. Schedule 2 permits a local authority to assess
a child’s needs at
the same time as other assessments under different legislation (for
example under the
Education Act 1996). The Children Act 1989 Guidance and Regulations,
Volume 6:
Children with Disabilities gives further
information.
The Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970
(CSDPA)
Section 2 of the CSDPA requires authorities to make arrangements for the
provision
of a number of services (such as practical assistance in the home or
access to leisure and
recreational facilities) if they are satisfied that it is necessary to
do so in order to meet
the disabled person’s needs.
The Community Care (Direct Payments) Act 1996
The Community Care (Direct Payments) Act is designed to enable local
authorities to
make direct payments to service users in order to purchase their own
communication
care.
The Carers and Disabled Children Bill
The Carers and Disabled Children Bill proposes, subject to Royal Assent,
to extend
direct payments to disabled 16 and 17 year olds and to parents of
disabled children.
The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA)
From December 1996 it has been unlawful for service providers to treat
disabled
people less favourably for a reason related to their disability. Since
October 1999,
service providers (including health and social services) have been
required to make
‘reasonable adjustments’ or provide an alternative method of service
when practices,
policies or procedures to make it impossible or unreasonably difficult
for a disabled
child or adult to use the service in question. The Code of Practice
on Rights of Access:
Goods, Facilities, Services and Premises (1999)
sets out the relevant duties for local
authorities in the provision of services. A Disability Rights Commission
was
established in April 2000.
106
The Disabled Persons (Services, Consultation and
Representation) Act 1986 (DPA)
This Act supplements the provisions of the CSDPA 1970. Section 4
requires
authorities to assess need for services under Section 2 of the CSDPA.
Sections 5 and 6
require authorities to identify disabled school leavers and assess their
need for social
services. Section 9 amends the Section 1 of the CSDPA with regard to
provision of
information.
The Education Act 1996
The Education Act 1996 specifies the procedures to be followed by Local
Education
Authorities (LEAs) with regard to the identification and assessment of
children with
special educational needs and any special educational provision arising
from
assessment. The Act is accompanied by a Code of Practice (Code of
Practice on the
Identification and Assessment of Special Education Needs (1994)) which clarifies the
contributions of social services departments and child health services,
as well as
schools and the LEA, in assessing special educational needs.
The Local Government and Housing Act 1999
Under section 114, local housing authorities are able to give disabled
facilities grants to
disabled people (including disabled children) to help with the costs of
adaptations to
enable them to live as independently as possible in their own homes.
The NHS and Community Care Act 1990
The NHS and Community Care Act 1990 requires social services departments
to
assess the needs of persons who may require community care services and,
if
appropriate, to provide ‘care packages’ in the light of the users’
circumstances. The Act
relates to adults and not to children, but is relevant to assessment for
transition plans.
107
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Introduction
4.1 This chapter provides information about practice materials, evidence
based
publications and training resources which were specifically commissioned
by the
Department of Health as part of the development of the Assessment
Framework. It
also includes other relevant training materials on which trainers,
practitioners and
managers may wish to draw. The practice materials are not comprehensive.
They do
not cover every aspect of the process of assessing children and
families, nor every
situation in which families may ask or are referred for help. The use of
these materials
will entail careful discrimination and thought being given to the
individual circumstances
of each child. They can provide checklists which may be useful for
structuring
what practitioners observe or discuss, and assist in the precise
recording and systematic
assembly of information for analysis. They complement but do not replace
information gained through interviews and observations.
The collection and recording of information
4.2 Collecting information which will help explain what is happening to
children and
their families and making sense of that information are key tasks in the
assessment
process. These tasks require knowledge, confidence and skill,
underpinned by regular
training and professional supervision. Materials, which help structure
practitioners’
thinking about the complex worlds of the families with whom they work,
which assist
them to record systematically and consistently what they have seen and
heard, and
then aid their analysis and formulation of appropriate plans, can make a
significant
contribution to the development of high quality work. Good tools
cannot substitute
for good practice, but good practice and good tools together can achieve
excellence.
4.3 Recently many local authority social services departments have
worked on new and
innovative approaches for responding to referrals of children in need.
Much of that
work has been on finding improved ways of collecting salient information
and
recording it from the point of referral onwards, and producing
assessment forms
which reflect a broader approach to families’ needs. Some of the
national voluntary
child care organisations, particularly those running family centres,
have found
imaginative ways of involving families in identifying their children’s
needs and
distinguishing them from their own needs as parents and adults.
113
4 Resources
to assist effective assessment
of children in need
4.4 The protocols, procedures, forms and methods of record keeping
and practice
resources of all authorities and agencies should be
consistent with the Assessment
Framework and with the principles which underpin its use.
Resources commissioned to assist the assessment
process
4.5 The Department of Health commissioned a range of materials to
support practice in
assessment by providing ideas and increasing the repertoire of tools
available to practitioners.
The two main developments have been to produce a recording format to
assist
in the collection and analysis of information gained during an
assessment of an
individual child and family, and a pack of questionnaires and scales to
assist assessment
in particular areas, for example child wellbeing or parental mental
health. These
materials have been tested for their usefulness and validity with local
authority and
voluntary agency practitioners and managers. The assessment records will
be
published with the Assessment Framework and refined following further
trialing and
evaluation during 2000/01. The questionnaires and scales have been
published in The
Family Assessment Pack of Questionnaires and Scales (2000) which also accompanies the
Assessment Framework.
Principles underpinning the use of practice materials
4.6 The principles, summarised below, which underpin good assessment
work, should be
applied in the use of all questionnaires, scales and other practice
materials.
114
PRINCIPLES FOR THE USE OF MATERIALS TO ASSIST ASSESSMENT
Clarity of purpose
Clarity about aims is fundamental to all assessment.
In practice these can be broad
ranging or more focused, depending on timing and
context, but in general there will be an
intention to gather a range of relevant information in
a manner that promotes or sustains
a positive working relationship with those being
assessed; in most circumstances
information is of limited use if collaboration has
broken down.
Assessment is not a static process
An assessment has many purposes but the process should
be therapeutic. The assessment
should inform the identification of current needs as
well as future work, and evaluate the
progress and effectiveness of interventions. The way
in which the assessment is carried out
is important. It should enable those involved to gain
fresh perspectives on their family
situation, which are in themselves helpful and assist
in taking the work forward.
Working with Children and Families is informed by
professional judgement
It follows that, although working with children and
families is a fundamental principle,
this does not mean that every detail on information
gained, or in particular the
practitioners’ judgement about that information, can be shared
immediately and
in full with those being assessed. Sustaining working relationships and
positive
therapeutic impact are overriding principles and timing is therefore a
consideration in deciding when and how to feed back information.
Assessment records
4.7 The Department of Health has commissioned the development of age
related
assessment records for use by social services front line staff when
collecting, collating
and analysing information gathered during an assessment of a child and
family. These
assessment records of children in need and parenting capacity, within
the wider
family and community context (Department
of Health and Cleaver, 2000) are both
research and practice based, and use the developmental dimensions of the
assessment
framework. They are underpinned by two important premises: that most
parents want
to do their best for their children; and that children can be protected
from the adverse
consequences of parental problems, in circumstances where another
significant adult
responds appropriately to the child’s developmental needs.
4.8 The assessment records cannot replace professional skills, but are
tools to assist social
workers and other colleagues in the process of assessment, recording and
decision
making when undertaking an assessment. As such they are designed to help
social
workers record:
_ the
child’s developmental progress;
_ each
caregiver’s parenting capacity;
_ the
impact of family and environmental factors.
4.9 In order to obtain the information required to complete the
assessment record, practitioners
should work in an age appropriate manner, with the child and openly with
the
child’s caregivers. Where appropriate other professionals working with
the child and
family, such as health workers and teachers, should be involved and
their knowledge of
the child and family incorporated into the record and subsequent making
of
judgements. The information required includes identifying the child’s
developmental
progress, who is responding to the child’s needs, and areas which should
be addressed
to ensure optimal outcomes for the child.
4.10 Once these domains have been explored during assessment, the format
in which the
information is documented on the records will help professionals analyse
the child’s
needs and the capacity of their parents/carers to respond appropriately
to those needs.
This understanding should inform judgements about the child’s situation
and
decisions about how best to help the particular child, parent(s) and
other family
members, for example siblings or grandparents.
115
Assessment does not take place in a vacuum
Assessments benefit from multiple sources of
information and multiple methods. Any
one source used alone is likely to give either a limited
or unbalanced view. This applies to
all the main approaches of interviewing, observation,
and the use of standardised tests
and questionnaires. Limitations should be recognised.
Contrasting data from different
methods and/or sources are vital to developing a
deeper and more balanced
understanding of the child and family’s situation.
From: The Family Assessment Pack of Questionnaires and
Scales (2000) (see paragraph 4.14)
4.11 The assessment records were the subject of an initial feasibility
study and revision
process in 1999. The records will, when used well, contribute to the
achievement of
greater consistency and coherence in the recording of assessments, plans
of action and
outcomes for children. The records will continue to be consistent with
the Looking
After Children Assessment and Action Records which are being revised
during 1999–
2001. The assessment records will be the subject of more extensive
development over
a two year period that will include integrating them with the Looking
After Children
materials. Further work will include ensuring that information gathered
for children
looked after who were known to the social services department prior to
being looked
after builds on that already recorded, thus avoiding duplication.
4.12 Information gathered about individual children, when aggregated,
will assist local
authority management of and planning for children’s services. Further
development
work will be undertaken by the Department of Health, in consultation
with key
players, to enable salient data on individual children to be used for
management
information purposes, to assist both local and national planning and
management of
children’s services. These data will also enable judgements to be made
about whether
the relevant Government objectives for children’s social services are
being met.
4.13 A Parenting Assessment Project which is being undertaken by
North Lincolnshire
Council, Home-Start and the University of Loughborough is also relevant
to the
assessment framework. As part of a local parenting assessment project, a
process is
being developed to help front line non-social services professionals,
for example health
visitors and teachers visiting or in contact with families, identify
those parents who
might need additional support in bringing up their children. Forms have
been
developed, on an age related basis, to help assess the level of concern
about a child, the
areas of child and family vulnerability and unmet need, and to assist
appropriate
provision of services or referral to other agencies for help. The
process and forms were
piloted across agencies in two areas of North Lincolnshire beginning in
June 1999.
Social services departments will wish to consider taking forward similar
work with
other agencies to facilitate appropriate referrals of children in need
and joint working
with vulnerable children.
Use of questionnaires and scales in assessment
4.14 The Family Assessment Pack of Questionnaires and Scales (Department
of Health, Cox
and Bentovim, 2000) which accompany this practice guidance, contains
questionnaires
and scales for use by social work and other social services staff for
specific
purposes when undertaking assessments. It includes the following:
_ Strengths
and Difficulties Questionnaires;
_ Parenting
Daily Hassles Scale;
_ Home
Conditions Assessment;
_ Adult
Wellbeing Scale;
_ Adolescent
Wellbeing Scale;
_ Recent
Life Events Questionnaire;
_ Family
Activity Scales (in two age bands);
_ Alcohol
Scale.
116
4.15 There is a wide range of questionnaires and instruments available
for use when
assessing children and families. Those set out in paragraph 4.14 were
selected because
of their appropriateness for the task of undertaking assessments using
the Assessment
Framework and because they proved easy to incorporate into practice. The
eight
questionnaires and scales can be used following a process of
familiarisation with the
materials but do not require any formal training.
4.16 The chosen assessment instruments are concerned with child mental
health and
development, parental mental health, parenting capacity and the family
environment.
A description of each questionnaire or scale is given below (Figure 5).
They are
intended to assist staff undertaking assessments by providing a clear
evidence base for
judgements and recommendations. The use of these questionnaires and
scales requires
careful preparation and introduction to families by the practitioner,
and a clear
explanation of how they fit into an initial or core assessment. Each
questionnaire or
scale should be used for the purpose for which it was developed. They
are intended to
contribute to the overall assessment and should be applied with
sensitivity and
understanding.
117
Figure 5 The Family Assessment Questionnaires and Scales
_ The
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires (Goodman
et al, 1997; Goodman et al, 1998). These
scales are a modification of the very widely used instruments to screen
for emotional and behavioural
problems in children and adolescents – the Rutter A + B scales for
parents and teachers. Although
similar to Rutter’s, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire’s
wording was re-framed to focus on
a child’s emotional and behavioural strengths as well as difficulties.
The actual questionnaire
incorporates five scales: pro-social, hyperactivity, emotional problems,
conduct (behavioural)
problems, and peer problems. In the pack, there are versions of the
scale to be completed by adult
caregivers, or teachers for children from age 3 to 16, and children
between the ages of 11–16. These
questionnaires have been used with disabled children and their teachers
and carers. They are available
in 40 languages on the following website:
http://chp.iop.kcl.ac.uk/sdq/b3.html
_ The
Parenting Daily Hassles Scale (Crnic and Greenberg,
1990; Crnic and Booth, 1991). This scale
aims to assess the frequency and intensity/impact of 20 potential
parenting ‘daily’ hassles experienced
by adults caring for children. It has been used in a wide variety of
research studies concerned with
children and families – particularly families with young children. It
has been found that parents (or
caregivers) generally like filling it out, because it touches on many
aspects of being a parent that are
important to them.
_ The
Home Conditions Assessment (The Family Cleanliness Scale. Davie et
al, 1984) addresses
various aspects of the home environment (for example, smell, state of
surfaces in house, floors). The
total score has been found to correlate highly with indices of the
development of children.
_ Adult
Wellbeing Scale (Irritability, Depression, Anxiety – IDA
Scale. Snaith et al, 1978). This scale,
which was based on the Irritability, Depression and Anxiety Scale, was
devised by a social worker
involved in the pilot. The questions are framed in a ‘personal’ fashion
(i.e. I feel, my appetite is…).
This scale looks at how an adult is feeling in terms of their
depression, anxiety and irritability. The
scale allows the adult to respond from four possible answers, which
enables the adult some choice,
and therefore less restriction. This could enable the adult to feel more
empowered.
4.17 These eight questionnaires and scales have all been well evaluated.
They are widely
used in psychology and psychiatry but are not commonly used in social
work practice.
In 1998/99 they were piloted in a number of different sites within five
social services
departments as part of the development of the Assessment Framework and
found to
be helpful.
4.18 Two other instruments, the Home Inventory (Caldwell and
Bradley, 1984) and the
Assessment of Family Competence, Strengths and Difficulties (Bentovim and Bingley
Miller (forthcoming)) based on the Family measures described by Kinston
and Loader
(1984) were also piloted and practitioners found them very useful. The
Home
118
_ The
Adolescent Wellbeing Scale (Self-rating Scale for Depression in Young
People. Birleson, 1980).
It was originally validated for children aged between 7–16. It involves
18 questions each relating to
different aspects of a child or adolescent’s life, and how they feel
about these. As a result of the pilot
the wording of some questions was altered in order to be more
appropriate to adolescents. Although
children as young as seven and eight have used it, older children’s
thoughts and beliefs about
themselves are more stable. The scale is intended to enable
practitioners to gain more insight and
understanding into how an adolescent feels about their life.
_ The
Recent Life Events Questionnaire This scale was taken
from Brugha et al (1985), with nine
additional items added. It focuses on recent life events (ie. those
occurring in the last 12 months) but
could be used over a longer time-scale. It is intended to assist in the
compilation of a social history.
Respondents are asked to identify which of the events still affects
them. It was hoped that use of the
scale will:
_ result
in a fuller picture of a family’s history and contribute to greater contextual
understanding of
the family’s current situation;
_ help
practitioners explore how particular recent life events have affected the carer
and the family;
_ in
some situations, identify life events which family members have not reported
earlier.
_ The
Family Activity Scale (Derived from The Child-Centredness Scale.
Smith, 1985). These scales
give practitioners an opportunity to explore with carers the environment
provided for their children,
through joint activities and support for independent activities. This
includes information about the
cultural and ideological environment in which children live, as well as
how their carers respond to
their children’s actions (for example, concerning play and
independence). They aim to be
independent of socio-economic resources. There are two separate scales;
one for children aged 2–6,
and one for children aged 7–12.
_ The
Alcohol Scale This scale was developed by Piccinelli et
al (1997). Alcohol abuse is estimated to
be present in about 6% of primary carers, ranking it third in frequency
behind major depression and
generalised anxiety. Higher rates are found in certain localities, and
particularly amongst those
parents known to social services departments. Drinking alcohol affects
different individuals in
different ways. For example, some people may be relatively unaffected by
the same amount of alcohol
that incapacitates others. The primary concern therefore is not the
amount of alcohol consumed, but
how it impacts on the individual and, more particularly, on their role
as a parent. This questionnaire
has been found to be effective in detecting individuals with alcohol
disorders and those with
hazardous drinking habits.
Inventory aims to obtain a picture of what the world is like from a
child’s perspective
and is not, therefore, exclusively focused on the care-giving activities
of carers. The
Assessment of Family Competence, Strengths and Difficulties provides an
approach
to assessing children and families which focuses on work in the
following areas:
_ direct
assessment of the family organisation and character;
_ completing
a family genogram;
_ undertaking
family tasks;
_ assessment
of presenting problem/concerns and difficulties;
_ exploring
parents’ background, childhood and developments;
_ use
of the family conflict tactics scale.
4.19 The pilot indicated that in order to use the above two instruments
effectively, practitioners
required more substantial training. The materials will be made available
later
in 2000 for use by practitioners and in training programmes.
4.20 Generally, these questionnaires and scales have been found to have
a number of
applications in practice:
_ to
strengthen the voice of the child or family in the assessment process;
_ to
clarify the nature and extent of need, either raising new issues or revealing
new
information during their use, or enabling practitioners to reassure
families of
progress;
_ to
provide a focus for assessment and a structure for an intervention plan;
_ to
provide a way of structuring discussions with families about issues the
families are
reluctant or feel unable to discuss;
_ to
provide an evidence base for reports;
_ to
monitor progress over time, having an open and agreed understanding between
staff and families of areas in which particular changes are planned.
Evidence based publications
4.21 The Department of Health commissioned child protection research
studies, which
are summarised in Child Protection: Messages from Research (Department
of Health,
1995b), identified a number of areas where practitioners working with
children and
families indicated they would benefit from further exploration of the
research
findings. Four of these have been taken forward in publications on:
child sexual abuse;
parental mental illness, domestic violence, and problem alcohol and drug
use;
working with fathers; and communicating with children who may have been
traumatised or maltreated. A fifth area identified was working with
black and minority
ethnic families. This has also been taken forward and is presented in
chapter 2 in this
publication.
4.22 Using an evidence based approach, the authors of the four
publications above
reviewed the available research, including relevant studies commissioned
by the
Department of Health, and their findings have informed the development
of the
119
Assessment Framework. In addition these publications are intended to
assist practitioners,
managers and policy makers when assessing children and families and
deciding which types of intervention are effective in a particular
family situation.
4.23 Each publication is summarised below. Readers are encouraged to
make extensive use
of these publications to inform the evidence base of their work with
children and
families.
4.24 Child Sexual Abuse. Informing Practice from Research (Jones
and Ramchandani, 1999)
outlines the different ways in which professionals can help children who
have
experienced sexual abuse. It describes how professional intervention can
improve the
outcomes for sexually abused children and their families. The authors
conclude:
_ therapies
can help children who have been sexually abused and those based on a
cognitive-behavioural model should help the majority of children who are
displaying symptoms of distress;
_ treatment
for children should not take place in isolation, but must include other
forms of help, for example, support for the child’s carers.
4.25 They suggest an algorithm (Figure 6) for helping a sexually abused
child. This can be
used by practitioners when deciding how best to help a child who has
been sexually
abused and by those planning appropriate resources for this group of
children and
their families.
4.26 Children’s Needs – Parenting Capacity (Cleaver et al, 1999)
addresses how parental
mental illness, problem alcohol and drug misuse, and domestic violence
have an
impact on children’s development. These potential problems affect each
child
differently depending on their age and circumstances. The publication
focuses on
children of different age groups and explores both the possible negative
consequences
of parenting issues and the buffering or protective factors.
Practitioners can draw on
this knowledge when assessing and intervening in families where there
are such
problems. This work underpins the assessment records under development
by the
Department of Health and Hedy Cleaver (see paragraphs 4.7 to 4.11).
4.27 In Working with Fathers (Ryan, 2000) the roles of men in
contemporary society are
examined and the impact of fathers on their children’s development is
explored.
Within the general context of the role of fathers in society, findings
are presented from
a number of child protection studies which found that fathers were not
being engaged
in child and family work. Even in situations where the father was a
positive and valued
person in his child’s life, the focus of practitioners was on mothers
and children. This
publication provides examples from practice on how to work with
different types of
fathers including those who are violent and abusive, whilst ensuring
children’s safety.
4.28 Communicating with children who may have been traumatised or
maltreated (Jones,
forthcoming) reviews the international literature and suggests how this
knowledge
can be used by practitioners in their work with children, and where
there are concerns
to assist children to tell their story. An important consideration is
ensuring that
children’s communications, which may be used as evidence in criminal
court
processes, are appropriately managed so as not to jeopardise any legal
proceedings.
120
121
Figure 63
An Algorithm For Helping Children Who Have Been
Sexually Abused
All sexually abused children
and their non-abusive parent
Supportive help from social workers
and psycho-educative groups
Different symptom groups will require
focused therapies of a cognitive-behaviour type
(can involve child and parent)
Some children may benefit from
long term pyschotherapy
Monitoring children for development of
symptoms at later developmental stages
(particularly adolescence)
Recovery of symptoms?
NO YES
Symptomatic?
YES NO
3 Reproduced
with kind permission from the authors of Child Sexual Abuse: Research into
Practice
(1999) Jones D P H and Ramchandani P. Radcliffe
Medical Press, Abingdon.
122
4.29 Four studies (Department of Health, 2000) were undertaken to inform
the
development of the Assessment Framework. These were:
_ A
review of the social work literature on assessment. This work has made a significant
contribution to the theoretical basis of the Assessment Framework. It
also identifies
that the theory of social work practice requires updating to take
account of
developments in practice over the past twenty years.
_ A
study of different structures and types of assessments undertaken in a variety
of settings
– social services departments, health service, voluntary agencies,
family centres –
which were either single agency or multi-disciplinary contexts. It
suggests the type
of settings, structures and cultures that facilitate assessment work.
_ A
study of the language used by social workers to describe the needs of children.
A key
finding was that where the Looking After Children materials were being
used by
social workers, they were describing the needs of children according to
the seven
child developmental dimensions.
_ A
summary of the findings on assessment from child care inspections undertaken by
the
Social Services Inspectorate during the period 1993–1997. The report identifies key
messages for practitioners, managers and policy makers in relation to
assessment.
4.30 These four studies provide a valuable source of information about
contemporary
practice and thinking. The intention is that they will inform the field,
and assist in
understanding the background and principles underpinning the Assessment
Framework, as well as assist its implementation.
Training resources
4.31 Training is a critical component of any strategy to implement new
policy or practice
and to embed it into everyday practice. To support the development of
knowledge and
skills, and to provide learning opportunities for practitioners to
become familiar with
the Assessment Framework and associated practice materials, a training
pack has been
developed concurrently with the Guidance. This pack has been designed to
be used
also in future training on the Assessment Framework and to be adapted
for a variety of
training purposes. Selected training resources either commissioned by or
produced
with the Department of Health have also been identified to help
practitioners with
some of the specific issues which may arise when undertaking a child and
family
assessment.
4.32 The Child’s World: Assessing Children in Need. Training and
Development Pack was
commissioned by the Department of Health and produced by the NSPCC and
the
University of Sheffield (2000). It consists of:
_ A
Video of trigger material highlighting issues
about assessment in a variety of
different circumstances. The material is presented in six scenarios,
covering
different aspects of assessment practice, and by children and young
people
including disabled young people, describing their experiences of
assessment. The
scenarios focus on planning the initial stages of an initial or core
assessment but can
be used for all stages in the process.
_ A
Training Guide which provides trainers with activities,
materials and guidance to
facilitate learning for a range of different audiences, although
primarily aimed at
social services staff. It includes four modules:
_ Introduction
to the Assessment Framework;
_ The
process of assessment;
_ Assessing
children’s developmental needs within their family and environmental
context;
_ Assessing
parenting capacity to respond to their child’s developmental needs
within their environmental context.
_ A
Reader designed to provide practitioners,
front-line managers and trainers with
an overview of theory, research and practice developments relevant to
assessing
children in need and their families. The Reader consists of four
modules:
_ The
framework: background and context;
_ The
assessment process: the task for practitioners and their supervisors;
_ The
developmental needs of children: research, theory and practice implications;
_ Parenting
capacity: factors that impact on carers ability to respond appropriately
to the needs of children in their care.
4.33 The Reader can be purchased separately from the rest of the Pack
(Horwath (ed),
2000). It is a valuable source of reference for those using the
Assessment Framework,
and provides a route to further study of contemporary theory and
research by practitioners
and their managers.
4.34 The objectives of the training and development pack are to provide
trainers with
resources to:
_ support
the implementation and use of the Guidance on assessing children in need
and their families;
_ support
the implementation and continuing understanding of Working Together to
Safeguard Children (1999) in relation to the assessment of
children where there are
concerns about significant harm;
_ enable
practitioners and managers to become familiar with the Assessment
Framework and to develop the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes
to use the
framework in practice;
_ provide
learning opportunities to improve the quality of assessments and outcomes
for children in need;
_ enable
practitioners and managers to use the framework in the context of national
and local policies and resources;
_ provide
a link between training based on this material and relevant qualifying and
post qualifying awards.
4.35 Key texts and articles as well as training programmes are also
highlighted in the
directory Undertaking Assessments of Children And Families (Connolly
and Shemmings,
1998). This publication was commissioned by the Department of Health as
a
123
4.37 A third training pack, to be published later in 2000, has been
commissioned by the
Department of Health to assist adult and children’s services staff work
together. It’s
focus is on working with physically disabled parents and their children,
assessing their
needs and providing appropriate services.
4.38 Five further training packs, which the Department of Health either
commissioned or
was closely involved in their development, are also relevant to
practitioners. They
address a number of key areas relating to the Assessment Framework. The
contents of
these are set out below.
124
Parental Mental Health
Crossing Bridges – Training resources for working with mentally ill
parents
and their children (1998) It contains a reader for
managers, practitioners
and trainers which in turn introduces and supports the associated
training materials. Information is provided on:
_ key
topics in adult mental health
_ parenting
and parent–child relationships
_ child
development and mental health
_ legislation
_ implications
for practice
Domestic Violence
Making an Impact. Children and Domestic Violence (1998)
This pack also contains a reader and training pack which have been
designed to ensure ready availability of training for front line staff
dealing with domestic violence.
resource for those involved in training and for use by individuals who
may wish
to pursue their own independent professional learning. The directory of
training
materials, key texts and programmes is divided into seven sections,
covering
respectively the areas of Training Packs, Videos, Open Learning
Materials, Computerbased
Information Services, Key Texts and Articles, Post-Qualifying Courses
and
NVQ Based Learning Opportunities. It describes the materials briefly in
order to help
the reader decide which materials will be helpful for the purpose, but
does not evaluate
them. It is a comprehensive source of reference to inform planning the
implementation
and use of this Guidance through training and continuing professional
development.
4.36 Two training packs were commissioned by the Department of Health to
assist staff
working in both adult and children’s services to ensure that children’s
development
will not be adversely affected when their parents have problems with
mental illness or
domestic violence respectively. They complement Cleaver et al’s
publication Children’s
Needs – Parenting Capacity (1999).
125
Direct work with children
Turning Points: A Resource Pack for Communicating with Children (1997)
NSPCC in association with Chailey Heritage, with support of the
Department
of Health.
This pack promotes a child-centred approach to working with children and
young people, including those who are disabled. It builds on the
principles of the
Children Act 1989 and endorses Article 12 of the United Nations Convention
on the Rights of the Child, placing emphasis on the rights of children
not only to
be protected, but also to have their voice heard.
Involving young people in the process of assessment
In on the Act – A Training Programme for Relevant Professionals (1999)
Shemmings D, School of Social Work, University of East Anglia.
The programme has four main aims:
_ To
raise participants’ awareness of key dilemmas for practitioners when
increasing the involvement of children in family support and child
protection;
_ To
offer professionals taking part the chance to explore new ways of involving
children in decision-making;
_ To
give participants an opportunity to improve their skills by considering
practical examples from the fields of family support and child protection;
_ To
help professionals discuss the options and consequences of different
outcomes when children are consulted about decisions which affect their
lives.
Family Decision Making
Family Group Conferences: A Training Pack (1998)
Morris K, Marsh P, and
Wiffen J, The Family Rights Group, London
The Pack contains background information about Family Group Conferences
and contains a number of exercises which addresses the following areas:
_ The
Family Group Conference model
_ The
context for Family Group Conferences
_ Attitudes
to families and a consideration of the need for change
_ Skills
development
_ Local
knowledge
Working with separated children and young people
living outside
their Country of origin
Unaccompanied Asylum-Seeking Children: A Training Pack (1995) Social Services
Inspectorate, Department of Health and Surrey County Council. This pack
contains practice guidance and information about relevant resources. It
pays
particular attention to sensitive issues for consideration when
assessing children
in these circumstances.
4.39 Two publications Adoption Now: Messages from Research (Department
of Health,
1999) and the The Children Act 1989 Now: Messages from Research (Department
of
Health, forthcoming) summarise major Department of Health commissioned
studies
on Adoption and the Children Act 1989 respectively. These are important
resources
for improving practice in work with children and families.
4.40 The materials should be used extensively and imaginatively in
qualifying training,
continuing study and private learning by all those with responsibility
for work with
children and families. Of critical importance is keeping up to date to
ensure a sound
basis of knowledge for evidence based practice.
126
Assessing the progress of looked after children
_ Looking
After Children: Training Resource Pack (1995a)
Department of Health.
It contains a comprehensive set of materials which can be used flexibly
to
support up to two days of training for social workers, foster carers,
residential
workers, students and others who have some responsibility for looking
after
children. It comprises:
_ Management
and Implementation Guide This contains key information for
managers and supervisors about organisational and practice issues.
_ Training
Guide Contains introductory materials, guidance
on setting up a
training programme, sample training programmes with workshops, reading
materials, learning exercises, case examples and other resources to
support staff
training and development.
_ Training
Video A 50-minute VHS tape, which shows the
Assessment and
Action Records being used by social workers and foster carers with six
children
and young people and their families. Inter-agency aspects of this work
are also
highlighted.
_ Video
Notes A book containing notes about the video
and its use in training.
_ Reader
This contains short papers which address the concepts
and philosophy
supporting the Looking After Children materials; the developmental
dimensions; and practice issues.
_ Demonstration
DocumentsTwo complete sets of Looking After
Children
documents.
Bentovim A and Bingley Miller L (forthcoming) Assessment of Family
Competence,
Strengths and Difficulties.
Birleson P (1980) The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and
the
development of a self-rating scale: A research report. Journal of
Child Psychology and
Psychiatry. 22: 73–88.
Brugha T, Bebington P, Tennant C and Hurry J (1985) The list of threatening
experiences: A subset of 12 life event categories with considerable
long-term
contextual threat. Psychological Medicine. 15: 189–194.
Caldwell B M and Bradley R H (1984) Home Observation for Measurement
of the
Environment – Administration Manual (revised edition). University of Arkansas,
Arkansas.
Cleaver H, Unell I and Aldgate J (1999) Children’s Needs – Parenting
Capacity: The
impact of parental mental illness, problem alcohol and drug use, and
domestic violence on
children’s development. The Stationery Office,
London.
Code of Practice for the Disability Discrimination Rights of Access –
Goods, Facilities,
Services and Premises. The Stationery Office,
London.
Connolly J and Shemmings D (1998) Undertaking Assessments of Children
and
Families: A directory of training materials, courses and key texts. University of East
Anglia, Norwich.
Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (1998)
The Stationery Office, London.
Crnic K A & Greenberg M T (1990) Minor parenting stresses with young
children.
Child Development. 61: 1628–1637.
Crnic K A & Booth C L (1991) Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of
daily hassles of
parenting across early childhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family.
53: 1043–1050.
Davie C E, Hutt S J, Vincent E and Mason M (1984) The young child at
home. NFERNelson,
Windsor.
Department of Health (1995a) Looking After Children: Training Pack.
HMSO,
London.
Department of Health (1995b) Child Protection: Messages from Research.
HMSO,
London.
Department of Health (1999) Adoption Now: Messages from Inspection.
Wiley,
Chichester.
Department of Health (2000) Studies which inform the development of
the Framework
for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The Stationery Office,
London.
Department of Health (forthcoming) The Children Act 1989 Now: Messages
from
Research. The Stationery Office, London.
Department of Health and Cleaver H (2000) Assessment Recording Forms.
The
Stationery Office, London.
127
References – Chapter 4
128
Department of Health, Cox A and Bentovim A (2000) The Family
Assessment Pack of
Questionnaires and Scales. The Stationery Office,
London.
Department of Health, Home Office, Department for Education and
Employment
(1999) Working Together to Safeguard Children: A guide to
inter-agency working to
safeguard and promote the welfare of children. The Stationery Office, London.
Department of Health, University of Bristol, the NSPCC and Barnardos
(1998)
Making an Impact: Children and Domestic Violence: Training Resource. Barnardos,
London.
Falkov A, Mayes K, Diggins M, Silverdale N, and Cox A (1998) Crossing
Bridges –
Training resources for working with mentally ill parents and their
children. Pavilion
Publishing, Brighton.
Goodman R (1997) The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A
Research Note.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 38:
581–586.
Goodman R, Meltzer H and Bailey V (1998) The strengths and difficulties
questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version.
European Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry. 7: 125–130.
Horwath J. (ed) (2000) The Child’s World: Assessing Children in Need.
The Reader. The
NSPCC, London.
Jones D and Ramchandani P (1999) Child Sexual Abuse: Informing
Practice from
Research. Radcliffe Medical Press. Abingdon.
Jones D P H (forthcoming) Communicating with children who may have
been
traumatised or maltreated (working title).
Kinston W and Loader P (1988) The Family Task Interview: A tool for
clinical
research infamily interaction. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy.
14: 67–87.
Marsh P and Peel M (1999) Leaving Care in Partnership: family
involvement with care
leavers. The Stationery Office, London.
Morris K, Marsh P and Wiffin J (1998) Family Group Conferences – A
Training Pack.
The Family Rights Group, London.
The NSPCC in association with Chailey Heritage and Department of Health
(1997)
Turning Points: A Resource Pack for Communicating with Children. The NSPCC,
London.
The NSPCC and the University of Sheffield (2000) The Child’s World:
Assessing
Children in Need. Training and Development Pack. The NSPCC, London.
Piccinelli M, Tessari E, Bortolomasi M, Piasere O, Semenzin M, Garzotto
N and
Tansella M (1997) Efficacy of the alcohol use disorders identification
test as a
screening tool for hazardous alcohol intake and related disorders in
primary care: A
validity study. British Medical Journal. 514: 420–424.
Ryan M (2000) Working with Fathers. Radcliffe Medical Press,
Abingdon.
Shemmings D (1999) In on the Act – A Training Programme for Relevant
Professionals.
School of Social Work, University of East
Anglia, Norwich.
Smith M A (1985) The Effects of Low Levels of Lead on Urban Children:
The relevance of
social factors. Ph.D. Psychology, University of London.
Snaith R P, Constantopoulos A A, Jardine M Y and McGuffin P (1978) A
clinical scale
for the self-assessment of irritability. British Journal of
Psychiatry. 132: 164–171.
Social Services Inspectorate and Surrey County Council (1995) Unaccompanied
Asylum-Seeking Children: A Training Pack.
Department of Health, London.
129
Document
available
http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Policyandguidance/Healthandsocialcaretopics/ChildrenServices/index.htm